The Marrow Controversy

The Marrow controversy (1718–22) most often is understood as a dispute between evangelical and legalistic parties within the eighteenth-century Kirk. Various forms of this analysis, however, leave certain questions unanswered. Rather than a clash between evangelicalism and legalism, the Marrow controversy was a collision between two differing developments of Scottish federal theology. Through the theological refinement precipitated by John Simson’s views, Thomas Boston and Ebenezer Erskine had crafted, from within the Scottish federal tradition, an evangelical federalism that emphasized the freeness and immediacy of grace. Through that same process of refinement, James Hadow had constructed, from within the same coherent Scottish federal tradition, an ordered federalism that emphasized the means through which God sovereignly bestowed his free grace upon sinners. These two federal systems, when confronted with the particular doctrinal expressions of The Marrow of Modern Divinity, produced both radically different readings of the same text and enduring controversy.

Early Modern French and Dutch Connections

This chapter traces the development of early modern Scottish Reformed theology vis-à-vis its exchanges with contemporaneous variants of the same tradition in France and the Netherlands. It charts these developments against the backdrop of Muller’s view of early modern Reformed theology as having developed in three phases: (i) early orthodoxy (c.1565 to c.1640), (ii) high orthodoxy (c.1640 to 1725), and (iii) late orthodoxy (1725 to c.1780). This essay locates the Franco-Scottish Reformed relationship as most fruitful in the period of early orthodoxy, which was facilitated by a brief, fragile period of French religious toleration under the Edict of Nantes. In comparison, Dutch–Scottish Reformed connections spanned the entirety of the period and beyond, with theological influence moving from Scotland to the Netherlands, and vice versa. This chapter aims to explain why early modern Scottish Reformed theology’s relationships to its closest continental neighbours developed so differently.

The Theology of the Westminster Confession of Faith in its Context

In 1643, England’s Long Parliament called theologians from every county of England and Wales to Westminster Abbey to revise the Thirty-Nine Articles, the foundational documents of the Church of England. As the divines commenced their revisions, they encountered a theological movement which they believed represented the greatest threat to the cause of Reformation. Somewhat surprisingly, it was not Roman Catholicism or even Arminianism; it was antinomianism, a new and powerfully growing sect. Concern to combat antinomian tenets drove the assembly into complex theological debates for the first six weeks of its meetings. Parliament’s signing of the Solemn League and Covenant, however, brought an end to the assembly’s revisions. The Covenant instigated the writing of a statement of faith that would function as the confession for a theologically united Church of England, Scotland, and Wales. To supervise the execution of this plan, the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland sent commissioners to the assembly to serve as consultative members. Although written in London primarily by English theologians, the Westminster Confession of Faith would be repudiated by Restoration officials. Its true impact came through its acceptance and implementation by the Church of Scotland.

Habit and Belief in the Early Scottish Reformation

The theology of the Reformation arrived in Scotland with travellers, smuggled books, and theological debate at the universities. This chapter examines the scant evidence for how this theology took shape, examining theological tracts written by religious exiles, along with heresy trials and other records. Given a potent symbol in the preaching and martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton in 1528, the doctrine of justification by faith alone was the primary concern of early Scots evangelical theology, coupled with a consistent emphasis on the habit of Bible reading. When a more confessional Reformed theology arrived with George Wishart, it was built on these emphases of habit and belief.

Duns Scotus

After a brief summary of Duns Scotus’ life and works, this chapter offers an overview of Scotus’ theology, showing how Scotus’ principal theological aim was theoretical generality: the attempt to treat of God and creatures using the same metaphysical tools—in particular, the same theories of unity and distinction. Despite his status as a radically innovative and original thinker, Scotus’ debt to twelfth-century theology is also highlighted, along with the aim, shared with these earlier theologians, of showing as much as possible of the Christian faith without appeal to revelation. Topics covered include: the theory of individuation, the coherence of the doctrine of the Trinity, the proof for the existence of God as a Trinity of persons, the univocity of being, the Immaculate Conception, Christocentrism, will and freedom, and the doctrine of grace.

Reformed Theology in Confessions and Catechisms to c.1620

After initial discussion of some problematical aspects in the adoption of Reformed theology in Scotland, this chapter will identify, describe, and evaluate Scottish confessions of faith, catechisms, and other pedagogic texts in the Reformation era from 1560 to c.1620. In doing this, it will firstly characterize the relatively diverse nature of European Reformed theology and confessional statements from which Scottish manifestations derive, and then assess them individually in the light of that wider tradition including the emerging covenant theology. In addition, the chapter will suggest that the most formative confessions and catechisms for theologians in Scotland were not so much the domestic ones as the major productions from elsewhere and used commonly in the Reformed world. It will also demonstrate that in the Scottish confessional and catechetical texts the directly formative influence is Calvin, while acknowledging ideas associated with Zurich, Heidelberg, and Dort.

Sixteenth-Century Philosophy and Theology after John Mair

This chapter investigates the concept and theological use of philosophy in Scotland after John Mair. Until the 1570s, philosophy in Scotland was in the tradition of scholasticism. After the Reformation, Melville’s university reform changed the philosophical landscape. Across Europe, the first generation of the Reformers had taught that scholasticism and Aristotle were not necessary for the Christian faith, and philosophers and theologians alike had to rethink the traditional scholasticism of Catholic legacy. This intellectual change is traced here with a focus on the role, scope, and autonomy of philosophy with respect to theology. After the dismissal of Aristotelo-scholasticism, both scholasticism and Aristotelianism survived in the universities in new forms adapted to Reformation theology. Aristotle in particular, regarded as the personification of unassisted natural reason, retained his importance. The status of Aristotle is a good indicator of the prevailing concept of philosophy.

John Ireland and the Transformation of Scotist Theology

John Ireland was the most distinguished Scottish theologian of the fifteenth century. Significantly, his own theology was deeply impacted by that of John Duns Scotus, whom he was proud to acknowledge a fellow countryman. This chapter discusses Ireland’s theology, focusing on his transformation of key Scotist motifs. It reveals Ireland’s profound debt to a Scotistic pattern of perfect-being theology, both directly and indirectly through the mediation of Ramon de Sabunde, the controversial fifteenth-century member of the school of Ramon Lull. It also positions his complex discussion of grace and free will as a pastoral via media between an Augustinian-Scotist and Ockhamist account of predestination. Overall, Ireland’s distinctive theological synthesis represents a creative response to some of the key debates of late medieval theology, and one whose influence was felt on the next generation of Scottish theologians.

The Covenant Idea in Mid-Seventeenth-Century Scotland

This chapter discusses the idea of the covenant in the middle of the seventeenth century in Scotland. It argues that this idea was distinctive within Scotland because of the unique historical context of the nation at the time. The ancient Scottish tradition of making alliances to defend oneself, the legacy of John Knox, and the mainstream of Reformation thinking in regard to federal theology all ensured that the covenant concept would give men like Samuel Rutherford, David Dickson, James Durham, and Patrick Gillespie a way to impress the truths of the Reformation as powerfully as possible upon the hearts and minds of the Scottish people. And, by doing so, it enabled them to work as effectively as possible to complete the Reformation in their home country.

Spiritual Theology in Bruce, Howie, Johnston, Boyd, and Leighton

This chapter concerns itself with how Scottish Reformed theology could go in a different direction from that of the polemical and the systematic. The five theologians considered, namely Robert Bruce (1554–1631), Robert Howie (1565–1641), John Johnston (1565–1611), Robert Boyd (1578–1627), and Robert Leighton (1611–84), all evidence a firm knowledge of the latter and should not be seen as reacting against the theological mainstream, but rather as bringing Reformed theology into dialogue with principles and practices of the Christian life as well as biblical exegesis. Often writing and thinking in a way that shows ‘humanist’ training, they arrive at something that can best be called ‘Spiritual Theology’. In the course charted here, this grows from being located somewhere in the ‘background’ theological method to being foregrounded in the content. There are clear signs of strong continental influence, to a varying degree.