‘I will solve my riddle to the music of the lyre’ (Psalm 49: 4 [5])

This chapter explores the relationship between wisdom psalms and the cult, asking whether Mowinckel’s characterization of the wisdom psalms as late and non-cultic is justified. It explores the possibility of wisdom influence on the psalter in early and later times, looking at questions of context and theology. Rather than seeing wisdom influence as mainly a scribal activity that was a post-exilic editing of the final form of the psalter, it is argued that the influence of wisdom went back to the days of the early Israelite cult. Its influence was strong also in post-exilic times, which confirms a connection between wisdom and cult at this stage (Perdue), however wisdom forms that shaped the literary development of some psalms and wisdom ideas that included an emphasis on creation and order are seen to be an essential part of the earliest self-identification of Israel through her worship.

‘The Lord Loved Him’

This chapter argues that from the first mention of Solomon in 2 Sam 12:24 where we are told that ‘The Lord loved Him’, he is portrayed in an idealized light, as somewhat of a cardboard cut-out of a character who can do no wrong. Despite a light critique of his actions towards the end of the 1 Kings account, the canon takes up this same idealization which is based on his role as the highest ethical paradigm—the embodiment of wisdom. In Proverbs, the characterization is reduced to authoritative voice, but in Ecclesiastes there is an interesting use of his ideal character as a paradigm not for emulation but for a test of the worth and/or worthlessness of wisdom. In the Song of Songs whilst he is also an authoritative voice, as in Proverbs, he also appears as a character evoking remembrance of his wealth and wisdom. The essential character of Solomon as wise king chosen and ‘loved’ by God runs throughout his portrayal and provides an ethical paradigm for those seeking to become wise.

‘Exploring Intertextual Links between Ecclesiastes and Genesis 1–11’

Links between Ecclesiastes and Genesis 1–11 have been noted sporadically by scholars over the years. This chapter, however, explores how the intertextual method helps to define what kinds of link are helpful to a deepened understanding of the relationship between the two texts. The method provides us with a language of categorization primarily on a literary level, but also on the key theological level that is inevitable when discussing two foundational texts for the exploration of ideas of God as creator. Historical issues too are not irrelevant—would there have been scope for Qoheleth to have reshaped essentially earlier ideas? This links up with the theological debate about the development of ideas about creation within the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament canon.

Scribes, Sages, and Seers in the First Temple

This chapter studies the categories of scribes, sages, and seers, their definitions and possible roles. Most sages were scribes but not all scribes were sages. The chapter divides into three sections: a) Scribes in the Israelite Bureaucracy; b) Sages in the Israelite Courts, and c) seers/mantic sages in Second Temple Judah. Section a) describes the Solomonic enlightenment theory and other theories and evidence for administrators within a royal court, including that of Hezekiah. Section b) looks at Solomon, Hezekiah, and Joseph as role models for the ‘sage’ in the royal court and considers the existence of schools, possibly linked to the court. Section c) considers the possibility of a more religious link in later times with possible temple/cult/seer roles.

The Roots of Solomonic ‘Wisdom’ in the Pre-exilic Period (Focusing on Proverbs)

The concern of this chapter is to explore the possibility of a vibrant and living wisdom tradition in the pre-exilic period. Whilst this used to be a ‘given’ of scholarship, the tendency towards later and later dating in recent scholarship has led to the need to reaffirm such ideas. Three approaches are taken—first a literary-historical one; second a theological one, and finally a comparative one. The focus is on the book of Proverbs, since it is arguments on the relative dating of parts of Proverbs that are of major concern, as well as the wider issue of whether the thought-world of wisdom was in the consciousness of early Israelites. It is found that there is a closer relationship of ‘wisdom literature’ to mainstream Yahwism than has often been thought with the key theological theme of God as creator providing an essential link. Links of the theological outlook of Proverbs with other parts of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and with the ancient cultures of the ancient Near East confirm these conclusions.

Deciding the Boundaries of ‘Wisdom’

Whilst it is generally agreed that the book of Proverbs is the mainspring of ‘wisdom’, there is considerable disagreement as to what exactly, beyond Proverbs, to include in the wisdom category and what the criteria for inclusion should be. That Job and Ecclesiastes should also form this core and that it should be further defined by the apocryphal books of Ben Sira and the Wisdom of Solomon is often taken for granted, but the material is very diverse in nature and genre. Then the question arises, should the net be widened to other parts of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, to narratives such as the Joseph Narrative and Succession Narrative or to a slippery selection of psalms that appear to be ‘wisdom’ in character, to Song of Songs and beyond. In fact, how do we classify any text showing significant wisdom influence? Indeed, is this categorization of ‘wisdom’ helpful at all? In this chapter, I suggest that there is a ‘core’ of wisdom material and that, as I have argued elsewhere, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes make up this core. Here, I go beyond this statement to evaluate the associations of other material with this core and suggest that the notion of family resemblance is a helpful descriptor for complex relationships between this material. I also consider the role of Solomon as the ‘father’ of wisdom and as the (symbolic?) figure that holds this ‘family’ together.

Conclusion

These last chapters seem to have taken us a long way from defining ‘wisdom’—whether that be Solomonic or otherwise—and have demonstrated that intertextual methods of varying types (functional, theological, thematic) daringly range texts of different ‘genres’ one with another, and broaden out the readerly meanings, insights and thematic richness that we gain from texts. But at the end of the day this does not help us to define wisdom boundaries! Rather the opposite, it encourages us to break down these boundaries, but not in a reckless way. As seen with Ecclesiastes and Genesis 1–11 we need to exercise some caution at least in saying that one text definitely influenced another on a diachronic scheme. However, a more synchronic approach to intertexts (such as with Proverbs and Ruth) opens up endless possibilities of comparing texts one with another. And, the thematic intertextual approach—as demonstrated in this short study of the Song of Songs—too is a rich resource for future research....

Didactic Intertextuality

In this chapter, 1 look at intertextual resonances with proverbial wisdom, notably from the sayings collection (10:1–22:16) showing how the didactic method of proverbial maxims as found in Proverbs (ethical emphasis) is applied in Ruth. The character of Ruth reveals that she is not simply a woman of worth (a comparison often made of Ruth with Prov 31) but she is a more profound exemplar of the values embodied in proverbial wisdom. Ruth links up with the wisdom ideal, not simply through her female figure/worthy womanliness/wife and mother role. It is of interest here how a narrative text links up with more abstract moral qualities as found in Proverbs. Rather than producing a maxim and then finding a story to illustrate it, a story is illustrated by a wider paradigm. This gives the story didactic ‘thrust’ (Cheung) for the reader. Whether these connections were in any way meant by an author is a separate question to the fact that these resonances are found in the text in its present form. I shall treat them as synchronic intertextual resonances with the possibility open that diachronic resonances may also have been intended. I am coining the phrase ‘didactic intertextuality’ to explain this phenomenon, which is potentially much wider than simply this one example and might be applied to other narratives.

The Watered (Edenic) Garden (Genesis 2–3) in the Song of Songs and Beyond

The Song of Songs has often been seen as a literary outlier within the canon and attempts to classify it alongside other literature have had limited success, more convincing parallels being found in ancient Near Eastern material than in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament itself. However, as Francis Landy puts it ‘no text is isolated, self-sufficient; none can be understood without reference to others’ (‘The Song of Songs in the Garden of Eden’, p. 516). I discuss the eligibility of the Song for a Solomonic wisdom corpus in Chapter 3. In this chapter I focus on a more thematic intertextual approach, starting with the Song of Songs but moving both within and outside the ‘Solomonic corpus’ in the imagery of garden and water. The garden, as typified in mythical terms by the garden of Eden (but not exclusively relating to this garden alone), is also called the ‘garden of the LORD’ in various texts. Then there is water that is so essential to the growth and maintenance of a garden and to all life. A thematic intertextuality seeks to find links primarily through themes, images, or metaphors used—in this case, gardens and water and echoes of an ideal Eden.

Solomon’s Wisdom and the Egyptian Connection

A canonical link of Solomon with wisdom literature is evidenced in the headings in Proverbs, in the Song of Songs and in Ecclesiastes. In I Kings we find the attribution to Solomon of wisdom, his prayer for wisdom and its characterization of his reign, and so on. Both the attributions and the Kings account are usually seen as idealizations from later writers. There is an accompanying scepticism about the historical events of Solomon’s reign. The question is raised how and why Solomon was remembered in the canon. Were the reasons socio-economic such that his reign represented a ‘novum’ (Brueggemann), or was there a Solomonic enlightenment? Were there wisdom schools generating wisdom-influenced narratives or training administrators? I argue for a substantial wisdom movement in the pre-exilic period which was a main feature of Solomon’s reign. The reputation he gained for wisdom suggests that he made the art of wisdom his own and his international connections with Egypt and Sheba support the internationalization of the enterprise.