Personality

The chapter opens by questioning the role of personality traits in causing behaviour, and decides to work with the common assumption that they have an important role. There is an account of the search for the real units or traits of personality. Some of the traits and dispositions, selected for their particularly direct effect on belief, for example, strong need for closure, are briefly described. There is a comment on the way long-standing occupational roles can sometimes modify personality.

Causes of Belief

The things that lead people to form beliefs are described. Among the factors discussed are the difficulties in using evidence well, the failure to withhold judgement, vacillating belief, the unconscious biases in reasoning, the tendency to wishful believing, the reluctance to change prior beliefs, the influence of shared beliefs of a community or group, the contrast between direct experience and testimony, how language is used, the effects of repetition and propaganda, personality, ego defence mechanisms, mood and emotion, mystical thinking, revelation, and natural credulity. A section on intelligence explains how high intelligence gives poor protection from holding foolish beliefs, with examples of mistaken beliefs of gifted people.

The Evolution of Mind

The evolution of the nervous system is described, with speculation on when consciousness first appears and when belief first appears. The developments of nonverbal communication and flexibility of response are traced. With humans the ability for mental simulation and inquiry by thought experiments appears, greatly extending the old method of trial by error. Humans still do most of the old things in the old ways, nonverbal communication, emotional feeling and expression, trial and error, family and kinship, in-group behaviour, aggression, conditioned behaviour, and instinct. System 2 reasoning has evolved, while old system 1 reasoning, of which belief is a part, retains its importance. The unique ability to adapt the environment to suit human needs has evolved.

The Role of Belief During Inquiry

This chapter deals with the role belief plays in inquiry. Inquiry begins by belief that there is a problem and is terminated by belief that a solution is found or cannot be found. It is the beliefs that count, not the truth of the matter. The process is subject to some voluntary control but in most applications it is automatic. This function of belief was described long ago by C. S. Peirce, but has since received little attention. It gives speed and economy to inquiry, with some sacrifice of accuracy for speed, and is relevant to the purpose of belief.

Complexity, Children, Dreams

There are difficulties for forming sound beliefs about complex subjects. The evidence about them is often complex, and subject to misinformation, and the beliefs formed about them are often too simple and wishful. The beliefs of young children are fallible in all the usual ways. Some ideas come naturally to children and seem to be evolved adaptations. These may be the sources of the paranormal beliefs that are common among adults. Some parts of the brain are active during dreaming sleep and other functions are inactive. Disbelief is inactive, and the loss of its restraining effect on chains of association of ideas may be why absurdities arise and are accepted.

Some Strange Shared Beliefs

This chapter describes and comments on mistaken beliefs that are or have been orthodox or at least common in whole communities. So-called culture-bound psychoses are illustrated by shen-k'uei in Taiwanese culture and malgri among natives of Mornington Island. So-called epidemic hysteria is illustrated by an outbreak of witchcraft in Christian Europe, the epidemic of shell shock among allied soldiers in the First World War, and the epidemic of RSI in Australia from 1980 to 1986. Brief notes on myths, legends, rumours, and conspiracy theories complete the chapter

In-Groups and Out-Groups

Evolution by group selection is accepted as important in all social animals, and illustrated by examples. In-group and out-group psychology can be seen in young infants, it is an old function of the old brain, it favours the in-group and devalues outgroups, it is related to emotion, symbolism, loyalty, patriotism, honour, pride, aggression, sacrifice, and war. It is involved in personal identity, sense of self, and pride of place. It determines many beliefs.

Dualism and Immaterial Mind

The final chapter is on the question of immaterial mind, the ghost in the machine. Some time is spent on Cartesian dualism, partly because Descartes is often misquoted and misunderstood, but all the main views are examined, without reaching a definite conclusion. I believe we do not know, we only have beliefs about this, and our beliefs depend on where our faith lies. The book ends by giving some of the implications that I believe follow from this uncertainty.