Teaching Essential Drawing Principles in Relation to the Human Figure

There is perhaps no more significant experience in the study of drawing than the study of the human figure. One needs only to look to the ancient Greeks and to the Renaissance masters to recognize the historical importance of the human form in the study of the visual arts and the refinement of visual expression. Although the figure’s presence and significance during the period known as modernism and in contemporary art has ebbed and flowed, its influence is always felt to some degree, and no classical or traditional art education would be complete without a substantial focus on drawing and studying the human form. Much debate is currently taking place about the changing role and responsibility of foundation courses for students studying both the fine and applied arts. If we examine those aspects that the fine and applied arts have in common, we find that a concern for communication is paramount, whether it takes place in a gallery or museum, in a television or magazine ad, on a showroom floor, on a computer monitor, or in any number of other locales. The power of the human form to communicate cannot be overstated, primarily because it is what we are. We have things in common with other humans that we have in common with nothing else. Looking at a human form in any context has the potential to provide us with the experience of looking in the mirror, of seeing our own reflection, so to speak. It follows that any significant experience in visual communication must thoroughly examine the role of the figure, and for the visual artist this requires experience with drawing the figure. The fine and applied arts also have in common a concern for principles of design and aesthetics. If we acknowledge the presence of these principles in nature, then we may also recognize an element of universality. Quite simply, I can think of no finer example of the application of principles of design and aesthetics than the living, breathing human form, and the human form is universal.

Introduction

This is the formal statement of my teaching philosophy, first developed when I initially sought a position in postsecondary art education. Although it has been finetuned and slightly revised over the years, it remains an accurate reflection of what I strive for in the teaching of art, and more specifically in the teaching of drawing. The memory of walking into a classroom of students for which I had complete responsibility for the first time still fills me with wonder and terror. I was no longer the student waiting to be showered with pearls of wisdom from my instructor. I was the instructor. The sense of awe and responsibility that I felt was simply overwhelming, especially since I had come from an undergraduate experience that seemed to promote the laissez-faire approach—for the most part, there was not a lot of active teaching taking place. The unspoken philosophy during my undergraduate years seemed to be one of passive instruction, supported simply by the primarily silent and stoic presence of the faculty member in the classroom. With few exceptions, there were no lectures or demonstrations given, there were no slides shown as examples, there were no textbooks or reference materials recommended or required, no group critiques or discussions of materials and media, no mention of current philosophies or issues in the art world. As students, we were often left to fend for ourselves. For the student with some natural ability, it may not have been a traumatic experience, but for the student who needed more guidance and encouragement, it was often an experience filled with frustration and a sense of failure. This was not the environment I wanted to re-create for the students for whom I was responsible. Once again, although in a very different role, I found myself on my own. As I gathered teaching experience in the classroom, I saw with increasing clarity the significance of the foundation experience for the student of visual arts. The quality of this introductory experience had the power to broadly influence a student’s entire attitude toward his or her education in the arts.

Establishing the Classroom Environment, Conducting Critiques, and Assigning Grades

The kind of environment you wish to establish in your classroom is an individual decision that is in part determined by your particular personality and what makes you feel most comfortable. Some teachers prefer a very relaxed environment while others prefer a more controlled environment. Regardless of which approach most appeals to you, you must consider what will be most effective in helping the majority of students to be attentive and productive during class time. In a studio class in which most students are college freshmen right out of high school, you may find it beneficial to keep a tighter rein on things since there seems to be a tendency for the atmosphere to escalate to noisy and chaotic if boundaries are not clearly established and adhered to. In a studio class in which the majority of students are older or more experienced, it will generally not be necessary to monitor things quite so closely. This reflects the simple fact that older students tend to be more mature and often take their studies more seriously. Of course this is a generalization that does not apply to all students, regardless of age or experience. You must gauge the situation and conduct yourself accordingly. Experience indicates that if the atmosphere is too unstructured, with a lot of noise and chatter unrelated to the work being pursued, it is difficult for students to concentrate and to maximize their learning experience. It is therefore a good idea to make it very clear when it is okay to be a bit more relaxed or playful and interactive with fellow students, and when it is time to buckle down and get to some serious work and maintain an atmosphere conducive to this. When working with a model in a life drawing course, certain guidelines should be followed to insure a mutually comfortable and respectful atmosphere for the students and the model. These guidelines are discussed in chapter two under “Classroom Etiquette for Working with a Nude Model.”

Spatial Thinking and Visualization: Teaching the Essential Principles of Perspective Drawing

Perspective drawing is a system for creating a two-dimensional illusion of a three-dimensional subject or three-dimensional space. Information, whether observed (empirically based) or imagined (theoretically based), is translated into a language or system that allows three-dimensional forms and space to be illusionistically represented on a two-dimensional surface. Although Brunelleschi is credited with the discovery or creation of perspective theory during the Renaissance in Italy, it is Albrecht Dürer, a German artist, who is best known for his exploration of perspective theory in his prints and drawings. Perspective theory is often separated into two parts: TECHNICAL OR MECHANICAL PERSPECTIVE,which is based on systems and geometry and is the primary focus of this chapter; and FREEHAND PERSPECTIVE, which is based on perception and observation of forms in space and is a more intuitive exploration of perspective theory. Freehand perspective relies to a significant degree on the process of sighting to judge the rate of convergence, depth, angle, etc. Technical or mechanical perspective utilizes drafting tools such as T-squares, compasses, and triangles, while freehand perspective generally explores perspective principles without the use of technical tools. While it is useful to study perspective in its most precise form with the aid of drafting tools and a simple straight-edge, it is also useful to explore these same principles in a purely freehand fashion, which allows for a more relaxed application of perspective principles. In studying perspective, it also becomes important to make a distinction between linear perspective and atmospheric perspective. LINEAR PERSPECTIVE addresses how the shapes, edges, and sizes of objects change in appearance when seen from different positions relative to the observer—off to one side, directly in front, close or far away, above or below, or any number of infinite variations. ATMOSPHERIC PERSPECTIVE describes other characteristics seen in objects that are some distance from the observer. A veil of atmospheric haze affects and decreases clarity, contrast, detail, and color. Atmospheric perspective, which is not mathematically or geometrically based, is a powerful complement to linear perspective, and when used together the illusion of three-dimensionality and space can be powerful.

Essential Skills and Information: What Every Teacher and Every Student Should Know about Drawing

Students often go through the motions of sighting without really understanding what they are doing and why it works. A little understanding of the principles of sighting goes a long way toward encouraging students to use the process to their advantage. . . . Why Use Sighting? . . . Many students have found that they are shining stars when it comes to copying photographs or working from other existing two-dimensional sources. They are often confounded when they discover that drawing from observation of three-dimensional forms does not yield the same strong results, the same degree of accuracy they are accustomed to. It is helpful for both the instructor and the student to understand why this occurs. Drawing or representing a three-dimensional form on a two-dimensional surface requires, in essence, a language translation. The language of two dimensions is different from the language of three dimensions. We must observe the three-dimensional form and translate it into a language that will be effective on a two-dimensional surface, such as a piece of drawing paper. When students draw from an existing two-dimensional source, the translation from 3-D to 2-D has already been made for them. But when they are referring to the actual form, they must make the translation themselves. The process of sighting provides the method for making this translation easily and effectively. A sighting stick is the basic tool for the process of sighting. I recommend using a IO" to I2" length of 1⁄8" dowel. Suitable alternatives include a slender knitting needle, a shish-kebab skewer, or a length of metal cut from a wire clothes hanger. Your sighting stick should be straight. I discourage the use of a drawing pencil as a sighting stick simply because the thickness of the pencil often obscures information when sighting. The more slender the tool, the less it interferes with observing the form or forms being drawn. However, in the absence of a more suitable tool, a pencil will suffice. In presenting sighting principles to a class, it is vital to go beyond a verbal explanation. For students to effectively understand the process, it is strongly recommended that teacher and students walk through the process together, exploring the various ways of applying sighting.