Across three studies based on a nationally representative survey (n = 1500), we developed and validated the misogyny scale. Initial items were generated from an extensive literature search and subsequently derived from validated scales assessing internalised misogyny, hostile sexism, and hostility towards women. Construct and measurement validity were established across several studies. An exploratory factor analysis (Study 1, n = 750) established the factor structure of the 10-item misogyny scale. In study 2 (n = 750), the 10-item structure was replicated via confirmatory factor analysis. The misogyny scale displayed good convergent (i.e., significant and strong relationship with male sexual entitlement, masculinity related violent beliefs and willingness to use violence) and discriminant validity (i.e., no relationship with analytical thinking). In study 3 (n = 750), we established measurement invariance across gender and age groups. This allows researchers to deploy the scale among male and female individuals, across different age groups as well as to assess latent mean differences. Significant latent mean differences for all three latent factors emerged between male and female participants, demonstrating that men had significantly stronger misogynistic attitudes than women (MDiff1 = -.482***; MDiff2 = -.324***; MDiff3 = -.197***). The latent mean differences ranged from small (Cohen’s d2 = .27; Cohen’s d3 = .19) to medium effect sizes (Cohen’s d1 = .38). The strongest latent mean differences between age groups were found for the factor ‘manipulative and exploitative nature of women’. Older age groups reported significantly stronger attitudes relating to this factor than younger participants. The misogyny scale will allow researchers to explore the psychological antecedents and consequences of misogyny among population samples and the subsequent findings may have important practical implications for prevention and intervention programs on violent (extremist) propensity development.
Measuring Individuals’ Misogynistic Attitudes: Development and Validation of the Misogyny Scale