An ecological-systems inquiry into racial disproportionalities in out-of-school suspensions from youth, caregiver and educator perspectives

Although there are federal protections for students with dis/abilities under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 1975, Black students with and without dis/abilities continue to be suspended and expelled at rates that exceed their peers. Still, there is limited research on how Black girls and Black boys are disciplined across suspension types, and based on their identification for special education services. The purpose of this article is to examine the overrepresentation of Black girls and Black boys with and without dis/abilities and to determine, using a quantifiable percentage, how the overrepresentation of Black students for in-school and out-of-school suspension can be eradicated. We use data from the U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights, Civil Rights Data Collection 2011–2012 to examine equity (justice and fairness) in disciplinary referrals using state-by-state and regional data. Using an equity formula, we analyzed national data to determine the magnitude of Black females’ and Black males’ overrepresentation in in-school and out-of-school suspensions for students with and without dis/abilities. This study indicates that Black females with dis/abilities had the highest rate of overrepresentation in the Midwest in in-school and out-of-school suspension. In comparison, Black males experienced a greater representation in in-school suspension. Regardless of geographic area Black girls and Black boys are continuously being overrepresented in disciplinary punishments. To end the over-representation of Black girls and Black boys in in-school and out-of-school suspensions, schools and policy makers must collaborate with communities of color, eliminate teacher implicit and explicit racial biases, and discontinue racially punitive school policies.

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Racialized Perceptions of School Violence Suspensions of African-American Students

Handbook of Research on School Violence in American K-12 Education - Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education ◽

10.4018/978-1-5225-6246-7.ch009 ◽

2019 ◽

pp. 208-226

Author(s):

Jeffrey Herron ◽

Morghan Vélez Young-Alfaro

Keyword(s):

African American ◽

School Violence ◽

Racial Discrimination ◽

African American Students ◽

School Suspensions ◽

American Students ◽

Learning School ◽

The Impact ◽

Perceptions Of School ◽

Out Of School

The history and current practices of out-of-school suspensions significantly impact African-American students; research shows the practices to be overly used and target African-American students. This chapter explores the ways that school violence is responded to disproportionally and is entangled with racial mythology. That is, racial discrimination shows up in structural and interpersonal ways such as suspending and expelling students of Color for the same infractions for which White peers get to return to class such as kicking a trashcan, defiance, and truancies. The chapter closes with recommendations for educators and policymakers, focusing on ways to mitigate the impact of out-of-school suspension practices and racial discrimination in order to improve the future of learning, school discipline, and outcomes of African-American students.

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Racialized Perceptions of School Violence Suspensions of African-American Students

Research Anthology on Empowering Marginalized Communities and Mitigating Racism and Discrimination ◽

10.4018/978-1-7998-8547-4.ch063 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1284-1302

Author(s):

Jeffrey Herron ◽

Morghan Vélez Young-Alfaro

Keyword(s):

African American ◽

School Violence ◽

Racial Discrimination ◽

African American Students ◽

School Suspensions ◽

American Students ◽

Learning School ◽

The Impact ◽

Perceptions Of School ◽

Out Of School

The history and current practices of out-of-school suspensions significantly impact African-American students; research shows the practices to be overly used and target African-American students. This chapter explores the ways that school violence is responded to disproportionally and is entangled with racial mythology. That is, racial discrimination shows up in structural and interpersonal ways such as suspending and expelling students of Color for the same infractions for which White peers get to return to class such as kicking a trashcan, defiance, and truancies. The chapter closes with recommendations for educators and policymakers, focusing on ways to mitigate the impact of out-of-school suspension practices and racial discrimination in order to improve the future of learning, school discipline, and outcomes of African-American students.

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The role of race in the Out-of-school suspensions of black students: The perspectives of students with suspensions, their parents and educators

Children and Youth Services Review ◽

10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.09.020 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 47 ◽

pp. 274-282 ◽

Cited By ~ 14

Author(s):

Priscilla A. Gibson ◽

Robert Wilson ◽

Wendy Haight ◽

Misa Kayama ◽

Jane M. Marshall

Keyword(s):

Black Students ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Out Of School

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Effect of SWPBIS on Disciplinary Exclusions for Students With and Without Disabilities

Council review ◽

10.1177/0014402919854196 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 86 (1) ◽

pp. 25-39 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Nicolette M. Grasley-Boy ◽

Nicholas A. Gage ◽

Michael Lombardo

Keyword(s):

Students With Disabilities ◽

Experimental Studies ◽

State Level ◽

Behavior Interventions ◽

Inappropriate Behaviors ◽

Positive Behavior Interventions ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Quasi Experimental ◽

Alternative Settings ◽

Out Of School

School leaders react to inappropriate behaviors by excluding students, despite research suggesting an association with poor student outcomes. Students with disabilities are frequently subjected to these practices. One framework that has been proposed to reduce the reliance on reactive discipline procedures is schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS). In this study, we replicated several state-level quasi-experimental studies with discipline data from California. Using propensity score matching, we compared 544 schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity and 544 schools that had never been trained. We found statistically significantly fewer out-of-school suspensions and days missed due to out-of-school suspensions across all students. Students with disabilities were statistically significantly less likely to be sent to alternative settings due to behavior in schools implementing SWPBIS with fidelity, with an effect size of −0.65. These results replicate and extend prior findings.

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Punishment in School: The Role of School Security Measures

International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership ◽

10.22230/ijepl.2014v9n2a483 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Thomas J Mowen

Keyword(s):

School Security ◽

Security Measures ◽

Childhood Experiences ◽

Security Officer ◽

Suspension Rates ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Prior Literature ◽

Using Data ◽

The Impact ◽

Out Of School

Although investigation of school security measures and their relationships to various outcomes including school crime rates (Gottfredson, 2001), perpetuation of social inequality (Ferguson, 2001; Nolan, 2011; Welch & Payne, 2010), and the impact on childhood experiences has seen significant growth within the last 20 years (Newman, 2004; Kupchik, 2010), few studies have sought to explore the impacts of these measures on suspension rates. Using data from the Educational Longitudinal Study (2002), I explore the relationship between security measures and in-school, out-of-school, and overall suspension rates. Results indicate schools with a security officer experience higher rates of in-school suspensions but have no difference in rates of out-of-school or overall suspensions compared to schools without a security officer. No other measure of security was related to higher suspension rates. As prior literature suggests, schools with greater proportions of black students experienced significantly higher rates of all suspension types. Finally, different types of parental involvement correlated with both higher and lower suspension rates.

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Principal discretion and the use of out-of-school suspension in public high schools

10.32469/10355/69949 ◽

2019 ◽

Author(s):

◽

Seth Harrell

Keyword(s):

Decision Making ◽

High School Principals ◽

Zero Tolerance ◽

Student Discipline ◽

School Suspension ◽

Study Results ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Student Misbehavior ◽

Principal Decision Making ◽

Out Of School

The purpose of this mixed methods study was to analyze school principal's perception and use of out-of-school suspension as a consequence to address student misbehavior. This study was conducted on current acting high school principals in the southeast region of a Midwestern state. Participants completed a survey that consisted of items related to principal decision making as well as the use of zero-tolerance policies to determine discipline outcomes. Survey items were designed to determine how out-of-school suspensions are used in relation to the use of principal discretion and zero-tolerance policies. Principals in this study were given the opportunity to participate in follow-up interviews where principals were asked more specific questions about their use of out-ofschool suspension as a form of student discipline. Study results found that principals felt the use of out-of-school suspension were an effective consequence to address student misbehavior. Principals felt they had the autonomy to use their discretion to determine the most appropriate consequence to address student misbehavior in their respective schools. Opinions were mixed on the use of zero-tolerance policies. A majority of surveyed participants felt that zero-tolerance policies were an effective method used to address student misbehavior. However, principals who were interviewed preferred to use their discretion over zero-tolerance policies when determining the most appropriate consequence because principals wanted to be able to consider all of the circumstances of a discipline situation. Principals concluded that out-of-school suspensions are necessary in-order to protect the learning environment for all students; however, there are inconsistencies in the use of such suspensions. These inconsistencies are present through the use of principal discretion and decision making, the use of zero-tolerance policies, the length of the suspension, and the unnecessary use of suspensions for minor discipline infractions.

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Factors predicting out-of-school suspensions for young children

International Journal for Population Data Science ◽

10.23889/ijpds.v3i4.618 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 3 (4) ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Megan Bell ◽

Donna Bayliss ◽

Rebecca Glauert ◽

Jeneva Ohan

Keyword(s):

Child Maltreatment ◽

Family Factors ◽

School Entry ◽

Criminal Offending ◽

Family Risk ◽

School Suspension ◽

Psychiatric Hospitalizations ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Grade 3 ◽

Out Of School

IntroductionDespite limited evidence supporting the effectiveness of out-of-school suspension for rectifying behavioural issues, the practice continues. Certain demographic factors (male, ethnic minority, low SES) predict suspensions; however, developmental and family factors can also play a role. Knowledge of these factors may inform alternative practices aimed at limiting the practice of suspension. Objectives and ApproachThis study investigated the relationship between out-of-school suspensions and demographic, developmental, and family factors. Children suspended in early schooling may be particularly at risk of poor school outcomes; thus, our sample includes children in the first years of school. Linked administrative data were obtained for 14,269 children enrolled in grade 3 at public schools in Western Australia. Multilevel logistic regressions were run, grouped by school, with out-of-school suspensions predicted by: child and parent demographic characteristics; a measure of children’s school-entry development (the Australian Early Development Census); and indicators of family risk (parental psychiatric hospitalizations, parental criminal offending, child maltreatment). ResultsApproximately 2% of children had been suspended at least once by grade 3. Aboriginal children, boys, and children attending schools with high levels of socioeconomic disadvantage had significantly increased odds of being suspended from school (2 times, 6 times, and 3 times increase, respectively). Furthermore, children considered socially and emotionally vulnerable at school-entry were around 3 times more likely than their peers to be suspended in the first few years of school. Parental psychiatric hospitalizations, parental criminal offending, and child maltreatment all significantly predicted out-of-school suspensions. Odds increased exponentially with each additional family risk factor experienced in early childhood. Children experiencing all three family risk factors were almost 7 times more likely than their peers to be suspended at least once by grade 3. Conclusion/ImplicationsOur results provide further justification for the implementation of alternatives to out-of-school suspension, as children who would most likely benefit from a stable, nurturing school environment were significantly more likely to be suspended. Schools need to be better supported by inter-agency collaboration to manage the complex needs of vulnerable children.

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Toward an alternative community-driven restorative model of school discipline

10.32920/18067979 ◽

2022 ◽

Author(s):

Johanne Jean-Pierre

Keyword(s):

Academic Success ◽

Nova Scotia ◽

Alternative Model ◽

School Discipline ◽

Community Members ◽

Research Project ◽

Scholarly Literature ◽

School Suspensions ◽

Black Learners ◽

Out Of School

Introduction -- Education is concomitantly a path for self-actualization and personal growth, a mechanism of social mobility, a crucial factor of labour market outcomes and lifetime earnings, a social determinant of health and quality of life, a fundamental institution in a democratic society, and a human right. Because education is so consequential at the individual and societal levels, barriers to it are a cause of great concern for various stakeholders, including parents, students, and community advocates. As a case in point, several advocates have identified issues pertaining to school discipline processes and outcomes in Nova Scotia (Barjun Consultants, 2001; Black Learners Advisory Committee, 1994; Nunn, 2006). Recently, we learned that Black learners in Nova Scotia are more likely to be subjected to out-of-school suspensions than other students across the province (Woodbury, 2016). Yet, scholarly literature indicates that punitive school discipline, such as out-of-school suspensions, are ineffective, worsen problematic behaviour, alienate students from school, and keep students away from formal learning opportunities (Fenning et al., 2004; Gregory et al., 2010; Jean-Pierre & Parris-Drummond, 2018; Mayer, 2001; Noguera, 2003). <div><br></div><div>This report is based on the main findings of a qualitative study that aimed to address school discipline racial disproportionality in Nova Scotia, conceive an alternative model of school discipline, and promote the academic success of Black learners. A research project was conducted with African Nova Scotian and Black immigrant youth, parents, and community members across the province between 2018 and 2019 in both English and French. Through nine focus groups and 17 interviews, 60 members of the community provided their perspectives and insights to inform the conception of an alternative model of school discipline. A community forum subsequently took place in March 2020 to discuss the findings and main recommendations with community members. Based on the research project and scholarly literature, this report presents key findings and recommendations that can foreground future school discipline policy and interventions to further Black learners’ academic success in Nova Scotia. Overall, the key themes derived from participants’ narratives emphasize the need to adopt alternative non-punitive responses to misconduct—primarily a restorative model—while simultaneously enhancing inclusive curricular and pedagogical practices to foster Black students’ academic success.</div>

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