Modelling hazardous distances for large-scale liquid hydrogen pool releases

Decarbonization plays an important role in future energy systems for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and establishing a zero-carbon society. Hydrogen is believed to be a promising secondary energy source (energy carrier) that can be converted, stored, and utilized efficiently, leading to a broad range of possibilities for future applications. Moreover, hydrogen and electricity are mutually converted, creating high energy security and broad economic opportunities toward high energy resilience. Hydrogen can be stored in various forms, including compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, hydrides, adsorbed hydrogen, and reformed fuels. Among these, liquid hydrogen has advantages, including high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities and hydrogen purity. However, liquid hydrogen is garnering increasing attention owing to the demand for long storage periods, long transportation distances, and economic performance. This paper reviews the characteristics of liquid hydrogen, liquefaction technology, storage and transportation methods, and safety standards to handle liquid hydrogen. The main challenges in utilizing liquid hydrogen are its extremely low temperature and ortho- to para-hydrogen conversion. These two characteristics have led to the urgent development of hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation. In addition, safety standards for handling liquid hydrogen must be updated regularly, especially to facilitate massive and large-scale hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation.

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A New Zealand Perspective on Hydrogen as an Export Commodity: Timing of Market Development and an Energy Assessment of Hydrogen Carriers

Energies ◽

10.3390/en14164876 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 14 (16) ◽

pp. 4876

Author(s):

James T. Hinkley

Keyword(s):

Energy Efficiency ◽

New Zealand ◽

Large Scale ◽

Supply And Demand ◽

Liquid Hydrogen ◽

Export Market ◽

Net Energy ◽

Renewable Energy Resources ◽

Energy Assessment ◽

New Energy

Hydrogen is currently receiving significant attention and investment as a key enabler of defossilised global energy systems. Many believe this will eventually result in the international trade of hydrogen as a commodity from countries with significant renewable energy resources, for example New Zealand and Australia, to net energy importing countries including Japan and Korea. Japan has, since 2014, been actively exploring the components of the necessary supply chains, including the assessment of different hydrogen carriers. Public/private partnerships have invested in demonstration projects to assess the comparative merits of liquid hydrogen, ammonia, and organic carriers. On the supply side, significant projects have been proposed in Australia while the impending closure of New Zealand’s Tiwai Point aluminium smelter at the end of 2024 may provide an opportunity for green hydrogen production. However, it is also evident that the transition to a hydrogen economy will take some years and confidence around the timing of supply and demand capacity is essential for new energy infrastructure investment. This paper reviews the expected development of an export market to Japan and concludes that large scale imports are unlikely before the late 2020s. Comparative evaluation of the energy efficiency of various hydrogen carriers concludes that it is too early to call a winner, but that ammonia has key advantages as a fungible commodity today, while liquid hydrogen has the potential to be a more efficient energy carrier. Ultimately it will be the delivered cost of hydrogen that will determine which carriers are used, and while energy efficiency is a key metric, there are other considerations such as infrastructure availability, and capital and operating costs.

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Large-scale Production, Handling, and Storage of Liquid Hydrogen

Advances in Cryogenic Engineering ◽

10.1007/978-1-4757-0537-9_5 ◽

1960 ◽

pp. 49-54 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

P. C. Arend

Keyword(s):

Large Scale ◽

Liquid Hydrogen ◽

Scale Production ◽

Large Scale Production ◽

And Storage

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Analysis of a Large Scale Liquid Hydrogen Dispersion Using the Multi-Phase Hydrodynamics Analysis Code (CHAMPAGNE)

Journal of Energy Resources Technology ◽

10.1115/1.1514216 ◽

2002 ◽

Vol 124 (4) ◽

pp. 283-289 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

K. Chitose ◽

M. Okamoto ◽

K. Takeno ◽

K. Hayashi ◽

M. Hishida

Keyword(s):

Large Scale ◽

Clean Energy ◽

Liquid Hydrogen ◽

Calculation Model ◽

Small Scale ◽

Simulation Code ◽

Large Tank ◽

Basic Functions ◽

Multi Phase ◽

And Storage

It is planned to use hydrogen extensively as a source of clean energy in the new century. As part of our investigation for an International Clean Energy Network Using Hydrogen Conversion (WE-NET), we have been studying to establish a safety scheme to ensure that both existing and new hydrogen technologies are implemented without endangering public safety. In this plan, we consider the transport and storage of a large quantity of hydrogen in a large tank. First we must evaluate the consequence of the postulated accident of liquid hydrogen. Since we have developed the multi-phase hydrodynamics analysis code (CHAMPAGNE), we apply the code to simulate the formation and dispersion of hydrogen vapor clouds. In the present paper we have improved the calculation model in two ways. We added a function to CHAMPAGNE for solving evaporation phenomena realistically, made many parametric calculations and planned the small-scale hydrogen dispersion experiments for the validation of this model. Another improvement is the turbulent mixing of evaporated liquid hydrogen. Now we have completed the basic functions of our simulation code. And these models of CHAMPANGE code must be verified by the experimental data.

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