Liquid Hydrogen: A Review on Liquefaction, Storage, Transportation, and Safety

Decarbonization plays an important role in future energy systems for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and establishing a zero-carbon society. Hydrogen is believed to be a promising secondary energy source (energy carrier) that can be converted, stored, and utilized efficiently, leading to a broad range of possibilities for future applications. Moreover, hydrogen and electricity are mutually converted, creating high energy security and broad economic opportunities toward high energy resilience. Hydrogen can be stored in various forms, including compressed gas, liquid hydrogen, hydrides, adsorbed hydrogen, and reformed fuels. Among these, liquid hydrogen has advantages, including high gravimetric and volumetric hydrogen densities and hydrogen purity. However, liquid hydrogen is garnering increasing attention owing to the demand for long storage periods, long transportation distances, and economic performance. This paper reviews the characteristics of liquid hydrogen, liquefaction technology, storage and transportation methods, and safety standards to handle liquid hydrogen. The main challenges in utilizing liquid hydrogen are its extremely low temperature and ortho- to para-hydrogen conversion. These two characteristics have led to the urgent development of hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation. In addition, safety standards for handling liquid hydrogen must be updated regularly, especially to facilitate massive and large-scale hydrogen liquefaction, storage, and transportation.

Download Full-text

Fire safety of hydrogen filling stations

ПОЖАРОВЗРЫВОБЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ ◽

10.22227/pvb.2020.29.04.42-50 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 29 (4) ◽

pp. 42-50

Author(s):

Yu. N. Shebeko

Keyword(s):

Hydrogen Storage ◽

Fire Safety ◽

Motor Fuel ◽

Hydrocarbon Fuel ◽

Liquid Hydrogen ◽

Adsorbed Hydrogen ◽

Explosion Safety ◽

Fire Hazards ◽

Compressed Gas ◽

Safety Features

Introduction. The problem of greenhouse gas emissions from hydrocarbon-powered vehicles, polluting the air, makes consumption of hydrogen as an alternative motor fuel particularly relevant. Solutions to this problem are provided in a number of works written by foreign researchers. This article contains the analysis of these works in respect of fi re and explosion safety assurance at gaseous and liquid hydrogen filling stations (hydrogen fi lling stations).Features of hydrogen storage. Motor fuel storage is a main problem of hydrogen filling stations and their operation. Most advanced hydrogen storage methods (applicable to gaseous, liquid and adsorbed hydrogen, as well as metal hydrides that contain hydrogen) are analyzed in the work.Compressed hydrogen filling stations. Fire and explosion safety features of filling stations, where compressed hydrogen is stored, are considered by the author. As a rule, mobile fuel trucks, equipped with compressed gas tanks, are used there.Liquid hydrogen filling stations. Fire safety aspects of filling stations, where liquid hydrogen is stored, regasifi cation is performed, and vehicles are fi lled with compressed gas, are also analyzed.Hydrogen formation at filling stations. One of the ways to supply fuel to a hydrogen filling station is to produce it on site using dehydrogenation of methylcyclohexane, which is delivered in tank trucks. Hydrogen is compressed and stored in cylinders. Fire hazards arising at such stations are analyzed.Main provisions of NFPA 2 in terms of hydrogen filling stations. The requirements of the international standard NFPA 2 Hydrogen Technologies Code. 2016 Edition, that apply to compressed and liquefi ed hydrogen filling stations, are considered.Conclusions. The author has made a conclusion that hydrogen fi lling stations are intensively built in several countries. It has been proven that if necessary protective measures are taken, hydrogen fi lling stations can be as safe as those using hydrocarbon fuel. It is necessary to develop a domestic regulatory document containing fi re safety requirements applicable to hydrogen fi lling stations with account taken of the international experience.

Download Full-text

Influence of Ultrasound on the Formation of High-energy Particle Tracks in a Liquid-hydrogen Bubble Chamber

Uspekhi Fizicheskih Nauk ◽

10.3367/ufnr.0099.196909l.0149 ◽

1969 ◽

Vol 99 (9) ◽

pp. 149-151

Author(s):

V.A. Akulichev ◽

L.R. Gavrilov ◽

V.G. Grebinnik ◽

V.A. Zhukov ◽

G. Libman ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Bubble Chamber ◽

High Energy ◽

Liquid Hydrogen ◽

High Energy Particle ◽

Hydrogen Bubble ◽

Hydrogen Bubble Chamber ◽

Energy Particle ◽

Particle Tracks

Download Full-text

Modular, Reconfigurable, High-Energy Systems Stepp...

10.2514/6.iac-05-d3.2.04 ◽

2005 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Joe T. Howell ◽

John C. Mankins ◽

Connie Carrington

Keyword(s):

Energy Systems ◽

High Energy

Download Full-text

Organic solvent-assisted free-standing Li2MnO3·LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 on 3D graphene as a high energy density cathode

Chemical Communications ◽

10.1039/c5cc06798g ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 51 (91) ◽

pp. 16381-16384 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Yuelong Xin ◽

Liya Qi ◽

Yiwei Zhang ◽

Zicheng Zuo ◽

Henghui Zhou ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Density ◽

Organic Solvent ◽

Freeze Drying ◽

Large Scale ◽

High Energy ◽

High Energy Density ◽

Free Standing ◽

3D Graphene ◽

Active Particles

A novel organic solvent-assisted freeze-drying pathway, which can effectively protect and uniformly distribute active particles, is developed to fabricate a free-standing Li2MnO3·LiNi1/3Co1/3Mn1/3O2 (LR)/rGO electrode on a large scale.

Download Full-text

Bridging granularity gaps to decarbonize large‐scale energy systems—The case of power system planning

Energy Science & Engineering ◽

10.1002/ese3.891 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Karl‐Kiên Cao ◽

Jannik Haas ◽

Evelyn Sperber ◽

Shima Sasanpour ◽

Seyedfarzad Sarfarazi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Power System ◽

Large Scale ◽

Energy Systems ◽

Power System Planning ◽

System Planning

Download Full-text

High energy density aqueous zinc–benzoquinone batteries enabled by carbon cloth with multiple anchoring effects

Journal of Materials Chemistry A ◽

10.1039/d0ta12127d ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Zhiqiang Luo ◽

Silin Zheng ◽

Shuo Zhao ◽

Xin Jiao ◽

Zongshuai Gong ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Storage ◽

Energy Density ◽

Porous Carbon ◽

Large Scale ◽

High Energy ◽

High Energy Density ◽

Carbon Cloth ◽

Anchoring Effects ◽

High Theoretical Capacity ◽

Energy Storage Applications

Benzoquinone with high theoretical capacity is anchored on N-plasma engraved porous carbon as a desirable cathode for rechargeable aqueous Zn-ion batteries. Such batteries display tremendous potential in large-scale energy storage applications.

Download Full-text

1.5 °C degrowth scenarios suggest the need for new mitigation pathways

Nature Communications ◽

10.1038/s41467-021-22884-9 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Lorenz T. Keyßer ◽

Manfred Lenzen

Keyword(s):

Technological Change ◽

High Speed ◽

Large Scale ◽

High Energy ◽

Climate Mitigation ◽

Intergovernmental Panel ◽

Economic Output ◽

Integrated Assessment Modelling ◽

Negative Emissions ◽

Energy Emissions

Abstract1.5 °C scenarios reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) rely on combinations of controversial negative emissions and unprecedented technological change, while assuming continued growth in gross domestic product (GDP). Thus far, the integrated assessment modelling community and the IPCC have neglected to consider degrowth scenarios, where economic output declines due to stringent climate mitigation. Hence, their potential to avoid reliance on negative emissions and speculative rates of technological change remains unexplored. As a first step to address this gap, this paper compares 1.5 °C degrowth scenarios with IPCC archetype scenarios, using a simplified quantitative representation of the fuel-energy-emissions nexus. Here we find that the degrowth scenarios minimize many key risks for feasibility and sustainability compared to technology-driven pathways, such as the reliance on high energy-GDP decoupling, large-scale carbon dioxide removal and large-scale and high-speed renewable energy transformation. However, substantial challenges remain regarding political feasibility. Nevertheless, degrowth pathways should be thoroughly considered.

Download Full-text

Large-scale optimal integration of wind and solar photovoltaic power in water-energy systems on islands

Energy Conversion and Management ◽

10.1016/j.enconman.2021.113982 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 235 ◽

pp. 113982

Author(s):

Pedro Cabrera ◽

José Antonio Carta ◽

Henrik Lund ◽

Jakob Zinck Thellufsen

Keyword(s):

Large Scale ◽

Energy Systems ◽

Solar Photovoltaic ◽

Photovoltaic Power ◽

Optimal Integration

Download Full-text

Nitrogen-enriched graphene framework from a large-scale magnesiothermic conversion of CO2 with synergistic kinetics for high-power lithium-ion capacitors

NPG Asia Materials ◽

10.1038/s41427-021-00327-7 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Chen Li ◽

Xiong Zhang ◽

Kai Wang ◽

Xianzhong Sun ◽

Yanan Xu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Energy Density ◽

High Power ◽

Power Output ◽

Large Scale ◽

Electrode Materials ◽

Lithium Ion ◽

High Energy ◽

High Energy Density ◽

Chemical Doping ◽

Lithium Ion Capacitor

AbstractLithium-ion capacitors are envisaged as promising energy-storage devices to simultaneously achieve a large energy density and high-power output at quick charge and discharge rates. However, the mismatched kinetics between capacitive cathodes and faradaic anodes still hinder their practical application for high-power purposes. To tackle this problem, the electron and ion transport of both electrodes should be substantially improved by targeted structural design and controllable chemical doping. Herein, nitrogen-enriched graphene frameworks are prepared via a large-scale and ultrafast magnesiothermic combustion synthesis using CO2 and melamine as precursors, which exhibit a crosslinked porous structure, abundant functional groups and high electrical conductivity (10524 S m−1). The material essentially delivers upgraded kinetics due to enhanced ion diffusion and electron transport. Excellent capacities of 1361 mA h g−1 and 827 mA h g−1 can be achieved at current densities of 0.1 A g−1 and 3 A g−1, respectively, demonstrating its outstanding lithium storage performance at both low and high rates. Moreover, the lithium-ion capacitor based on these nitrogen-enriched graphene frameworks displays a high energy density of 151 Wh kg−1, and still retains 86 Wh kg−1 even at an ultrahigh power output of 49 kW kg−1. This study reveals an effective pathway to achieve synergistic kinetics in carbon electrode materials for achieving high-power lithium-ion capacitors.

Download Full-text