Trauma research often uses the definition of trauma in the diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which in general terms involves experiencing a life-threatening event. Using this definition, the majority of individuals have experienced at least one traumatic event in their lifetime, with some demographic groups being at greater risk (e.g., sexual minorities). Nonetheless, many other kinds of events can be distressing besides those that meet the definition of trauma in the criteria for PTSD, including adverse childhood experiences, racial microaggressions, morally injurious events, and historical trauma. Much research on the effects of trauma also focuses on PTSD. This research shows that although most individuals experience at least one traumatic event in their lifetime, few (5 percent–10 percent) trauma-exposed individuals develop PTSD. Thus, research also has examined resilient outcomes following trauma exposure, defined as stable functioning following adversity. In the developmental literature, resilience refers to adequate long-term adaptation across life domains despite chronic childhood adversity whereas, in the adult trauma literature, resilience has been defined as having minimal symptoms posttrauma. Research in both child and adult samples suggests that resilience is the modal response to trauma and adversity. However, the conclusion that resilience is the modal response to adult trauma has recently come under criticism on methodological grounds. Finally, posttraumatic growth (PTG) refers to reports of better functioning in various life domains posttrauma. Although such reports are common, this area of research also has been criticized on methodological grounds based on the finding that self-reported growth is tenuously related to actual pre- to posttrauma change. Because of the diversity of responses to trauma exposure, an important question concerns which factors predict better or poorer adjustment in response to traumatic events. These risk and protective factors include pretrauma, trauma-related, and posttraumatic characteristics. For example, female gender is a risk factor for PTSD partly because women are at greater risk of sexual violence, which is the trauma type that carries the highest PTSD risk. With regard to posttrauma factors, lack of social support is a particularly important risk factor. Progress has been made in terms of developing effective treatments for preventing and treating PTSD. In the immediate posttrauma phase, psychological debriefing (without emotional processing) is recommended. In the acute phase, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is recommended for the prevention of PTSD. CBT and exposure therapies are recommended for treating PTSD. Less is known about the promotion of resilience or PTG.
Trauma Psychology
