A sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) aqueous extract was prepared and loaded into soybean phosphatidylcholine liposomes. Both the free extract (FE), and the empty (L) and loaded (L-FE) liposomes were shown to be non-cytotoxic to THP-1 and Caco-2 cells. The anti-inflammatory effect was tested on THP-1 cells differentiated into macrophages. FE showed anti-inflammatory activity, revealed by the induced secretion of IL-10 cytokines in macrophages that were subsequently stimulated with LPS. Also, a decrease in TNF-α production by L was observed, evidencing that liposomes reduced the pro-inflammatory mediators’ secretion. The liposomes (L) showed protective anti-inflammatory activity and also were able to downregulate the inflammation. Furthermore, L-FE were also found to downregulate the inflammation response, as they were able to decrease TNF-α secretion in macrophages previously exposed to LPS. The simulated in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (GID) of FE diminished the chlorogenic acid content (the main polyphenolic compound of the extract) by 40%, while in L-FE, the amount of this phenolic compound increased with respect to the undigested liposomes. The amount of bioaccessible chlorogenic, however, was similar for FE and L-FE. The percentage of chlorogenic acid absorbed through a Caco-2 cell monolayer after 3 h of incubation, was significantly similar for the extract and the liposomes (~1.5%), without finding significant differences once the extract and liposomes were digested.
Simulated gastrointestinal digestion of Brazilian açaí seeds affects the content of flavan-3-ol derivatives, and their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities
