Since HIV disease was first recognized three decades ago, numerous efforts have been made to prevent its continued transmission. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that more than 56,000 Americans become infected each year—one person every 9 1/2 minutes—and that more than one million people in this country are now living with HIV (CDC, 2008, 2009;Hall et al., 2008). The CDC estimates that roughly 1 in 5 people infected with HIV in the United States is unaware of his or her infection and may be unknowingly transmitting the virus to others (CDC, 2008). Over the past 15 years, many behavioral HIV risk reduction interventions have been developed, with prevention efforts targeting mostly HIV-negative individuals and focusing almost exclusively on HIV testing and counseling. More recently, comprehensive HIV prevention has involved both primary and secondary prevention activities to decrease the number of new HIV infections and associated complications, respectively (Marks et al., 2006; O’Leary and Wolitski, 2009). Psychiatric factors both complicate and perpetuate the HIV pandemic as a result of unsafe sexual practices and substance use disorders. In this chapter, we describe some of the psychiatric and psychodynamic factors that lead to HIV transmission and present novel strategies to assist clinicians and health-care policymakers in prevention efforts. Primary prevention is defined as any activity that reduces the burden of morbidity or mortality from disease; it is to be distinguished from secondary prevention, in which activities are designed to prevent the complications of already existing disease. In the case of HIV, primary prevention efforts focus on strategies designed to prevent the transmission of HIV—keeping seronegative people seronegative. In the HIV pandemic, however, many prevention strategies share characteristics of both primary and secondary efforts, so the distinction is somewhat artificial. Multiple prevention strategies have been devised, and these center around HIV counseling, substance abuse programs, and HIV prevention and intervention programs for children. Counseling healthy pregnant women, uninfected children, adolescents, adults, and older persons about HIV risk reduction and providing information about sexual health are important components to primary prevention strategies, but few physicians and other clinicians actually do this unless it is a part of a program specifically designed to prevent HIV transmission.
Psychological Sense of Community and the Use of Condoms and PrEP Among a Sample of Aging Black MSM
