ABSTRACT
l-norepinephrine (NE) is a neuroendocrine catecholamine that supports bacterial growth by mobilizing iron from a primary source such as holotransferrin to increase its bioavailability for cellular uptake. Iron complexes of NE resemble those of bacterial siderophores that are scavenged by human neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as part of the innate immune defense. Here, we show that NGAL binds iron-complexed NE, indicating physiological relevance for both bacterial and human iron metabolism. The fluorescence titration of purified recombinant NGAL with the FeIII·(NE)3 iron complex revealed high affinity for this ligand, with a K
D of 50.6 nM. In contrast, the binding protein FeuA of Bacillus subtilis, which is involved in the bacterial uptake of triscatecholate iron complexes, has a K
D for FeIII·(NE)3 of 1.6 μM, indicating that NGAL is an efficient competitor. Furthermore, NGAL was shown to inhibit the NE-mediated growth of both E. coli and B. subtilis strains that either are capable or incapable of producing their native siderophores enterobactin and bacillibactin, respectively. These experiments suggest that iron-complexed NE directly serves as an iron source for bacterial uptake systems, and that NGAL can function as an antagonist of this iron acquisition process. Interestingly, a functional FeuABC uptake system was shown to be necessary for NE-mediated growth stimulation as well as its NGAL-dependent inhibition. This study demonstrates for the first time that human NGAL not only neutralizes pathogen-derived virulence factors but also can effectively scavenge an iron-chelate complex abundant in the host.
Bis(imino)pyridine iron complexes for catalytic carbene transfer reactions
