The field of traditional chinese fiction studiesis as diverse in its approaches and findings as the body of material included in the termxiaoshuo, with which the modern field imprecisely corresponds. As a term for classifying writings in early China,xiaoshuoseemingly meant “other” works that did not fit into the major category of narrative, i.e., history. In the bibliographical section of Ban Gu's (c.e. 32–92)Han shu, theYiwen zhi, titles identified asxiaoshuoapparently were miscellaneous writings of no uniform characteristics or content. In theHan shubibliography,xiaoshuowere classified under thezhuzior “miscellaneous philosophers”; during the Six Dynasties period these writings were grouped in thezior “philosophers” section of thesibu, the durable four-fold bibliographic division of all writing originated in the third century and still in use. ThisHan shudesignation reflected the assumption thatxiaoshuoare or should be generally “discursive,” even if they are of less significance than formal philosophical works. The clear discrimination between verifiable narrative works (hence historical) and fanciful (or fictitious) writings was a product of the Tang period; however, the assignment of fictionalxiaoshuoto the same category as philosophy continued then as well. Like Aristotle, early Chinese bibliographers saw general truth, rather than the specific truth of history, as the operative criterion in fiction, despite the origins of many fictional narrative conventions in historiography (see K. J. DeWoskin, “Six DynastiesChih-kuai,” esp. p. 46). Twentieth-century scholarly attempts to see the term as synonymous with the modern concept of fiction are frustrated by its original lack of specificity and the fact that patently fictitious (from the modern rationalist perspective) elements appear in all other forms of early literature, both philosophical works (as parables or the flights of imaginative fancy inZhuang zi) and history (in fabricated conversations and fantastic events). While it may be argued that a term like “narrative,” with its coincident concern for story, discourse, and conventions (using distinctions drawn by Seymour Chatman,Coming to Terms[Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990], pp. 9, 83, 117, etc.), would more adequately serve to describe the range of materials modern scholars might address, because the termxiaoshuostill delineates the field for its specialists, narratives in philosophy and history are usually disallowed, and there is no general agreement on criteria by which to identify its earliest examples (see Hou Zongyi,Liuchao xiaoshuo shi, pp. 1–4, for a history of the term).
Place of Virtue Ethics within the Post-Classical Discourse on ḥikma