The Background of Brazilian History

1946 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 151-164
Author(s):  
William B. Greenlee

To understand the setting of the discovery and of the early voyages to Brazil we must go back to some of the circumstances which preceded, and review the conditions in Europe at that time. The discoveries of the Portuguese navigators mark an epoch in world history. Had Columbus not persuaded the Spaniards to finance his voyage to the Spice Islands by a western route, the Portuguese might easily have claimed the discovery of both North and South America within a decade following Columbus’ landfall. Both continents would probably have been visited in 1500 when Gaspar Corte-Real reached Newfoundland and Pedro Alvares Cabral, Brazil. The former voyage was but a continuation of others westward over the Atlantic and the latter was only an incident in the Voyages to India. Furthermore, the delusion of reaching Asia would have been avoided. The exploration of the Americas would then have been carried on in an orderly manner with the realization that a new world had been found. However, the Portuguese are not best known for their voyages to America, but for the first accurate knowledge of both the West and East coasts of Africa, of the Indian Ocean and of the Spice Islands. They continued these voyages even farther, up the coast of China, and in 1542 they were the first Europeans to set foot in Japan. These achievements, of which any nation might justly be proud, were made by a country which then numbered between one and two million people.

2008 ◽  
Vol 38 (1-6) ◽  
pp. 129-175
Author(s):  
Christopher H. Dietrich ◽  
Dmitry A. Dmitriev

The 35 previously described species (including 4 junior synonyms) of the New World erythroneurine leafhopper genus Zyginama are reviewed and descriptions are provided for 43 new species, 2 from U.S.A., 26 from Mexico, 1 from Panama, and 14 from the Amazon region of South America. The following new synonyms are recognized: Z. aucta (McAtee) equals Erythroneura bilocularis Van Duzee, syn. n., and E. inclita Beamer, syn. n.; Z. nicholi (Beamer) equals E. canyonensis Beamer, syn. n., and E. ales Beamer, syn. n. Separate keys are provided for identification of males from North and South America, all known species are illustrated, and data on their distributions are summarized. Phylogenetic analysis of 40 morphological characters of the 71 species for which males are known yielded a reasonably well resolved estimate of relationships among the included species, but branch support was low overall.


1980 ◽  
Vol 28 (3) ◽  
pp. 369 ◽  
Author(s):  
MY Menzel ◽  
DW Martin

Genomes of the G group in Hibiscus sect. Furcaria have been found previously in one African diploid species and in various ailoploid combinations in Africa, India and Sri Lanka, North and South America and the Hawaiian Islands. Study of 11 interspecific hybrids between the Australian species H. heterophyllus and H. splendens and G-genome testers indicates that genomes somewhat related to the G group are present in the Australian allohexaploid alliance. These genomes are designated G′. Several of the intercontinental hybrids studied were weak, inviable or morphologically abnormal. The data support the interpretation that the genomes of the Australian alliance have diverged more from African and New World genomes than the latter two have from each other.


2016 ◽  
Vol 90 (2) ◽  
pp. 317-332 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alexander K. Hastings ◽  
Moritz Reisser ◽  
Torsten M. Scheyer

AbstractAlligators and caimans share a close relationship, supported by both molecular and morphological characters. The divergence between alligators and caimans has been difficult to discern in the fossil record. Two basal taxa have recently been described from the Miocene of Panama and Venezuela but have not yet been presented in a joint phylogeny. Continued preparation of the type material of the Venezuelan Globidentosuchus brachyrostris Scheyer et al., 2013 has revealed new characters for scoring in a cladistic framework. In addition, the first lower jaw of the Panamanian Centenariosuchus gilmorei Hastings et al., 2013 is described herein, and additional characters were scored. In total, we conducted five cladistic analyses to better understand the character evolution involved in the establishment of Caimaninae. In each case, Globidentosuchus appears as the basal-most of the caimanine lineage, followed by Culebrasuchus mesoamericanus Hastings et al., 2013 from Panama. Stepwise character additions of synapomorphies define progressively more derived caimanines, but stratigraphic context creates ghost lineages extending from the Miocene to Paleocene. The persistence of two basal taxa into the Miocene of northern South America and Central America supports the concept of a relict basal population in this region. This further supports biogeographic hypotheses of dispersals in both directions between North and South America prior to full land connection.


Author(s):  
Yuri Berezkin

Фольклорные мотивы «внешней души» (персонаж умирает, когда уничтожены какой-то предмет или существо) и «ахиллесовой пяты» (уязвимое место персонажа находится на его теле, а не во внутренних органах) используются для объяснения смертности/бессмертия персонажа. Как и 2700 других, мировое распределение которых отражено в нашей электронной базе данных, эти мотивы являются не порождением универсального «первобытного сознания», а продуктом конкретных исторических процессов и обстоятельств. Цель статьи – определить эпоху и регион их первоначального распространения. Для этого сопоставлены материалы по Новому и Старому Свету. В Центральной и Южной Африке, в Австралии и Меланезии данные мотивы редки или вовсе отсутствуют, поэтому их появление уже в эпоху выхода-из-Африки невероятно. «Ахиллесова пята» обычна в текстах северо- и южноамериканских индейцев, включая огнеземельцев, тогда как ее евразийский ареал сильно разрежен. «Внешняя душа» популярна в пределах большей части Евразии, но в Америке встречается только к северу от Рио-Гранде. В последние тысячелетия на территории Старого Света мотив «ахиллесовой пяты» был, по-видимому, в основном вытеснен мотивом «внешней души», а в Америке сохранился благодаря ее изоляции от Евразии. Оба мотива были принесены в Новый Свет на ранних этапах его заселения. Их почти полное отсутствие в северо-восточной Азии и на северо-западе Северной Америки исключает позднюю диффузию через Берингов пролив. Соответственно возраст данных мотивов в Евразии должен превышать 15 тыс. лет, причем «ахиллесова пята», вероятно, древнее. Отсутствие или редкость этих мотивов в фольклоре народов северо-востока Сибири, где они должны были быть известны накануне их переноса в Новый Свет, согласуется с данными о значительных изменениях в генофонде населения Сибири в течение голоцена. Усложненный вариант «внешней души» с последовательным вложением животных и предметов, являющихся ее вместилищами, в Америке отсутствует. Он распространился лишь после античной эпохи в контексте волшебной сказки.The “external soul” (person dies when some object or creature is destroyed) and the “Achilles heel” (The only vulnerable spot is near the surface of person’s body and not in his inner organs) are folklore motifs used to explain why a particular person cannot be killed or how he can be killed. As other 2700 motifs which global distribution is demonstrated in our database, the “external soul” and the “Achilles heel” are a product not of the universal “primitive mind” but of particular historical processes and circumstances and we try to reveal the age and region of their initial spread. In Central and South Africa, Australia and Melanesia both motifs are rare or totally absent. This makes improbable their origin in the Out-of-Africa time. The “Achilles heel” is often found in North and South America but its Eurasian area is sporadic. On the contrary, the “external soul” is very popular across most of Eurasia but in the New World it, is found only in North but not in South America. It looks plausible that in the Old World the motif of “Achilles heel” was mostly ousted by the “external soul” being preserved in the New World thanks to its isolation from Eurasia. The lack or rarity of these motifs in the Northeast Asia and in Alaska and American Arctic excludes, possibility of their late diffusion across Bering Strait. Because both motifs were brought to America by the early migrants, their age in Eurasia must exceed 15,000 years, the “Achilles heel” being probably older. At the time of the peopling of America, both motifs had to be well known to the oral traditions of the Northeast Asia. Their rarity or absence there in historic time is in conformity with significant differences between genetic samples of Early and Late Holocene populations of Siberia. The complicated version of the “external soul” according to which a life essence is hidden in a series of objects and beings, one inside the other, is absent in America. Such a variant probably spread across the Old World after the end of antiquity being used in fairytales.


1964 ◽  
Vol 42 (7) ◽  
pp. 891-922 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. Boraiah ◽  
Margaret Heimburger

New World taxa of Anemone L. (section Eriocephalus Hook. f. & Thoms.) with woody rootstocks have few morphological differences on which to delimit species. With the aid of data from cytological, distributional, and hybridization studies, the following species with ternate leaves could be recognized: A. multiceps (Greene) Standl., A. multifida Poir., 2n 32, A. tetonensis Porter, 2n 32, A. stylosa Nelson, 2n 32. A. drummondii S. wats., 2n 32, and A. lithophila Rydb., 2n 48, are complexes with two or more taxa in each. All these taxa except A. multifida are restricted in distribution to the Rocky Mountains. A. multifida is a morphologically variable but cytologically homogeneous species widely distributed in both North and South America. The remaining taxa have biternate leaves and are sparingly represented in herbaria by specimens from widely separated localities. Their status has not been determined. A collection from Mt. Rainier, Wash., is diploid and one from Kittitas Co., Wash., is tetraploid.Karyotype studies indicate a close relationship among the tetraploids, A. multifida, A. tetonensis, and A. stylosa, all of which have one set of large and one set of small chromosomes. The other taxa have sets of small chromosomes only. Affinities among taxa in the A. lithophila and A. drummondii. complexes are suggested by the sharing of distinctive marker chromosomes. The European alpine A. baldensis L., 2n 16, is not related to the ternate-leaved taxa of the above complexes but a relationship with the biternate-leaved taxa may possibly exist.


2012 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 277-288 ◽  
Author(s):  
José Luis Prado ◽  
Joaquín Arroyo-Cabrales ◽  
Eileen Johnson ◽  
María Teresa Alberdi ◽  
Oscar J. Polaco

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