Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been studied and clinically applied to restoring or assisting motor functions lost due to spinal cord injury or cerebrovascular disease. Electrical stimulation without control of functional movements is also used for therapy or in rehabilitation training. In recent years, one of the main focuses of FES studies has been its application for rehabilitation of motor function. In this review, the authors first present the basics of applying electrical stimulation to the neuromuscular system for motor control. Then, two methods of FES control are discussed: controllers for FES based on feedback error learning (FEL) and on cycle-to-cycle control of limb movements. The FEL-FES controller can be practical in FES applications that need to control the musculoskeletal system that involves various nonlinear characteristics and delay in its responses to electrical stimulation. The cycle-to-cycle control is expected to be effective in controlling repetitive movements for rehabilitation training. Finally, a study on ankle dorsiflexion control during the swing phase using an integrated system of FES control and motion measurement with wearable sensors for rehabilitation is presented.
Audio-visual stimulation in conjunction with functional electrical stimulation to address upper limb and lower limb movement disorder
