Functions of multiple play signals in free-ranging juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

Some mammals, including some nonhuman primates, use multiple play signals during social play that convey the playful mood or intention of the signaler. However, why single species use multiple play signals has not been investigated. We recently identified seven such signals among free-ranging juvenile rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, all of which predict the imminent occurrence of play. Here we ask whether the use of these multiple signals may have more precise or multiple functions. Specifically, we ask whether different play signals are associated with different (1) types of play to come, (2) intensities of play, (3) initiators of play and/or (4) distances at which the signal is given. Our results indicate that most signals were disproportionately associated with one or more aspects of play. For example, gamboling was associated with play that is initiated at a distance, crouch-and-stares were associated with chasing play and intense play, and leg-peeks were associated with play initiated by the receiver, as opposed to the signaler. These nonrandom associations suggest that play signals, most of which are conspicuous body signals, are not merely redundant variants of a single general function to transmit a playful mood. Rather they may be used more selectively in a variety of play contexts in which it may be beneficial to reinforce, clarify or emphasize the playful intention of the signaler. At the same time, most are not associated with particular contexts in a highly exclusive or simple manner. As such further research is needed to determine whether they are examples of functionally referential signaling.

Emotional responses to ridicule and teasing: Should gelotophobes react differently?

The present study examined the hypothesis that gelotophobia blurs the emotional responses between ridicule and good-natured teasing. Ridicule should induce negative feelings and teasing happiness and surprise in individuals not suffering gelotophobia. Gelotophobes will discriminate less between the two. Their responses to teasing will be similar to ridicule. A sample of adults (N = 105) specified which emotions they would experience in nine scenarios of social interactions pre-selected to represent bullying ridicule or good-natured teasing. Ridicule elicited strong responses of shame, fear and anger, and other negative emotions but low happiness and surprise. Responses of gelotophobes and non-gelotophobes were highly parallel, with the exception that among extreme gelotophobes stronger shame and fear were displayed than among non-gelotophobes. Good-natured teasing seemed to elicit happiness and surprise and low levels of negative emotions among the non-gelotophobes. Among the gelotophobes, however, it was the negative emotions; primarily shame, fear, and anger that were exhibited as the emotional response pattern. In fact, the emotion profile to good-humored teasing was highly similar to the profile in response to the bullying-ridiculing situations. Gelotophobes' perceptions do not discriminate between playful teasing and good-natured teasing. They do not identify the safe and non-threatening quality of the teasing situations. Treatment of gelotophobes should, therefore, involve helping them to identify the play-signals, i.e., the meta-message that the interaction is playful, for fun and that no harm is intended.

Social Play in Arabian Babblers

Social play behavior was studied in eleven groups of tame, color-ringed Arabian babblers (Turdoides squamiceps) at the Shezaf nature reserve near Hazeva in the Rift Valley in Israel. 2500 instances of play were recorded in 950 hours of observations carried out from July 1981 to June 1983. Four hours of play interactions were recorded on video-tape and were analyzed using slow-motion techniques. Babblers' play fits all the criteria for 'social play' described by Loizos (1967) and by Muller-Schwarze (1978). The most common forms of play observed were wrestling, displacement (king-of-the-hill), chases, and tug-of-war. Several play-signals were identified: crouching, rolling over, elevation of sticks, play bow, establishing eye contact and freezing briefly in the middle of play. No vocal play-signals were observed. The ontogeny of play is briefly described. Play activity diminishes with age. Dominants play less than subordinates. Babblers tend to play with individuals close to them in rank. Breeding females rarely play. There was no effect of age, dominance or gender on the type of play. When playing, dominants use play-signals more often than subordinates do. Social tension in a group inhibited play activity. Babblers play more in summer than in winter. Bouts of play tend to alternate with bouts of allopreening. Food supplementation increased both activities. Play is more demanding than allopreening, both physically and socially. It is suggested that in babblers testing the social bond is a major component in both social play and allopreening.