A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Reading and Writing Interventions for Students with Disorders of Intellectual Development

Students with disorders of intellectual development (ID) experience challenges in reading and writing, indicating the need for research-based interventions. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effects of reading and writing interventions for students aged 4–19 with disorders of ID using randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs (QEDs). We conducted electronic searches of relevant databases, backward and forward searches, and contacted experts in the field. Based on predefined criteria, nine studies were included in the systematic review, and seven were included in the meta-analysis. The reading interventions included decoding strategies, often combined with sight-word and supplemental instructions appropriate to the participants’ adaptive and cognitive skills. None of the studies aimed to increase writing skills. The overall mean effect size from the reading interventions for trained reading was large (g = 0.95, 95% CI = [0.51, 1.38]), for transfer reading small-to-moderate (g = 0.49, 95% CI = [0.20, 0.78]) and for transfer writing small (g = 0.04, 95% CI = [−0.36, 0.44]). Students with disorders of ID can benefit from reading interventions combining decoding strategies and sight word reading. There is a need for RCT and QED studies investigating writing interventions for students with disorders of ID only.

Effects of Writing Interventions on the Level and Trend of Total Words Written: A Meta-Analysis

We estimated effects of writing interventions on the level and trend of writing fluency—rate of total words written over time—by students with and without disabilities. Using mixed-effects regression and an information-theoretic ranking of competing models, we synthesized results of 42 single-case experimental design studies with a total of 205 students. A variety of acquisition and fluency interventions were used across studies, such as self-regulated strategy development and timed practice with performance feedback. We found acquisition and fluency interventions produced an increase in level and a gradual increase in trend of total words written per minute. Students receiving fluency intervention tended to have higher levels of performance across experimental phases (i.e., baseline, intervention, and postintervention), but students receiving acquisition had steeper upward trends. In addition, we found higher levels of total words written per minute on writing tasks with brief time limits (i.e., ≤10 min) and in the writing of older students.

Spiritually Oriented Expressive Writing and Promoting Positive Outcomes After a Natural Disaster

Natural disasters can disrupt and challenge survivors’ core belief systems, leading to negative health consequences. People often rely on religion/spirituality to help them cope and make meaning, but to date very few studies have specifically focused on exploring spiritually oriented expressive writing interventions with natural disaster survivors. Therefore, the current longitudinal, mixed-methods study utilized an experimental design with random assignment of 132 survivors of the 2016 Louisiana flooding. Quantitative measures were completed before and after the writing intervention, then at 1-month and 6-month follow-up time points. Results indicated that the spiritually oriented intervention was effective in promoting meaning in life but not life satisfaction. Survivors with lower preintervention positive attitudes toward God evidenced the strongest growth over time regarding meaning in life. Qualitative analyses, using a directed content analysis approach, revealed six themes in the experimental group’s written responses that expanded previous research. Finally, we discuss implications for counseling and future research.

The Effects of Self-Compassion and Self-Esteem Writing Interventions on Women’s Valuation of Weight Management Goals, Body Appreciation, and Eating Behaviors

In this study, we examined the effects of body-focused daily self-compassion and self-esteem expressive writing activities on women’s valuation of weight management goals, body appreciation, bulimic symptoms, and healthy and unhealthy eating behaviors. One-hundred twenty-six women, recruited from the community and a university participant pool ( Mage = 29.3, SD = 13.6), were randomly allocated to one of the three writing conditions: body-focused self-compassion, body-focused self-esteem, or control. Women reflected on a moment within the past 24 hours that made them feel self-conscious about their bodies, eating, or exercise habits (self-compassion and self-esteem conditions) or on a particular situation or feeling that occurred in the past 24 hours (control condition) for 4–7 days. At post-treatment (24 hours after the intervention), women in the self-compassion group demonstrated decreased bulimic symptoms, while women in the self-esteem and control conditions did not. Furthermore, clinically significant changes in bulimic symptoms were associated with being in the self-compassion condition but not in the self-esteem or control conditions. Results suggest that body-focused writing interventions may be more effective in temporarily reducing eating disorder symptoms in women if they focus on harnessing self-compassion. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843211013465

Intensifying Instruction to Meet Students’ Early Writing Needs

With over 70% of fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-grade students in the United States scoring below proficiency levels in writing (NCES, 2009), teachers must provide early and effective writing intervention to accelerate students’ writing skills to meet grade-level standards. In this paper, we provide teachers with a theoretical framework to conceptualize the writing process, link evidenced-based writing interventions to each component of writing, and discuss how to create a writing instructional plan to individualize instruction. Then, we outline a data-based decision making process for intervention delivery. Our aim is to provide educators with steps to identify students’ writing needs, translate these needs into actionable teaching strategies, and accelerate writing progress for students who struggle to meet grade-level writing standards.

A sentence-combining intervention for struggling writers: response to intervention

Children who struggle with writing are a heterogeneous group and may experience difficulties in a range of domains, including spelling, reading, and oral language. These difficulties are reflected in their writing and may influence their responsiveness to writing interventions. The effectiveness of a targeted sentence-combining intervention to improve the writing skills of 71 struggling writers, aged 7 to 10 years, was compared with a spelling intervention and a business as usual (waiting list) control condition. Some struggling writers also performed poorly on measures of reading and oral language. Children's performance on a range of writing measures were assessed at baseline (t1), immediate post-test (t2) and delayed post-test (t3). Children receiving the sentence-combining intervention showed significant improvements in the sentence combining measure at t2 and t3 compared to both the spelling intervention and waiting list controls. Exploratory regression analyses found that children in the sentence-combining intervention, with a low t1 sentence combining score, low reading skills or better t1 spelling skills, were more likely to show improvements at t2. Findings indicate that when devising interventions for struggling writers, specific profiles of skills should be considered. Specifically, sentence combining may be more appropriate for SWs whose primary area of difficulty is reading, rather than poor spelling or oral language.

Peer-Mediated Academic Interventions

Peer-mediated academic interventions (PMAIs) have a robust evidence base that support their use in classrooms to improve a variety of academic behaviors. In this chapter, we define PMAIs, discuss strengths and challenges of using these interventions in classrooms with diverse groups of learners, and provide a detailed review of the literature to support each of four highlighted PMAIs: peer tutoring, Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies, cooperative learning, and peer-mediated writing interventions. This chapter also introduces the practical chapters in this section, which cover each of the four highlighted PMAIs.