What is left after an error? Towards a comprehensive account of goal-based binding and retrieval

The cognitive system readily detects and corrects erroneous actions by establishing episodic bindings between representations of the acted upon stimuli and the intended correct response. If these stimuli are encountered again, they trigger the retrieval of the correct response. Thus, binding and retrieval efficiently pave the way for future success. The current study set out to define the role of the erroneous response itself and explicit feedback for the error during these processes of goal-based binding and retrieval. Two experiments showed robust and similar binding and retrieval effects with and without feedback and pointed towards sustained activation of the unbound, erroneous response. The third experiment confirmed that the erroneous response is more readily available than a neutral alternative. Together, the results demonstrate that episodic binding biases future actions toward success, guided primarily through internal feedback processes, while the erroneous response still leaves detectable traces in human action control.

Is the Error-related Negativity Amplitude Related to Error Detectability? Evidence from Effects of Different Error Types

The present study tested error detection theories of the error-related negativity (ERN) by investigating the relation between ERN amplitude and error detectability. To this end, ERN amplitudes were compared with a behavioral measure of error detectability across two different error types in a four-choice flanker task. If an erroneous response was associated with the flankers, it was considered a flanker error, otherwise it was considered a nonflanker error. Two experiments revealed that, whereas detectability was better for nonflanker errors than for flanker errors, ERN amplitudes were larger for flanker errors than for nonflanker errors. Moreover, undetected errors led to strongly reduced ERN amplitudes relative to detected errors. These results suggest that, although error detection is necessary for an ERN to occur, the ERN amplitude is not related to error detectability but rather to error significance.

It Pays to Switch? Consequences of Changing Answers on Multiple-Choice Examinations

Common observation indicates a widely held folk-admonition among students and teachers that it is unwise to switch answers to questions on multiple-choice tests because the first response selected is more apt to be correct than a subsequently selected alternative answer. With Ss from two introductory college psychology courses which differed in terms of instructors, format of tests used, and enrollment (222 vs 162), it was found that across four examinations in each of the courses: (a) about 55% of all changes of answers made were positive (i.e., from an incorrect to the correct alternative), (b) approximately 24% of all changes made were neutral (i.e., from one wrong alternative to another such answer), and (c) less than 22% of all changes made were negative (i.e., from an initially correct answer to an erroneous response). In addition, to provide this information—which clearly invalidates the folk-admonition to students—did not alter the average rate at which they switched answers.