To Mask or Not to Mask—Evaluation of Cognitive Performance in Children Wearing Face Masks during School Lessons (MasKids)

In the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, wearing a face mask is mandatory again during school lessons. There are no controlled studies in children to date indicating an effect on cognitive performance from wearing face masks. In a randomized controlled trial, we analysed the influence of face masks on cognitive performance of pupils during regular school lessons. Pupils (n = 133, fifth to seventh grade) were randomized by alternating allocation into control (with masks, n = 65) and intervention groups (without mask, n = 68). After two school lessons with (control) and without (intervention) face masks in class, all pupils performed digital tests for cognitive performance regarding attention and executive functions (switch, Corsi block-tapping, 2-back and flanker task). Overall, there were no significant differences in cognitive performance between both groups, masks vs. no masks. Wearing face masks has no significant influence on attention and executive functions of pupils and can still be recommended during school lessons.

Further Evidence for the Binding and Retrieval of Control-States From the Flanker Task

In response-interference tasks, congruency effects are reduced in trials that follow an incongruent trial. This congruence sequence effect (CSE) has been taken to reflect top-down cognitive control processes that monitor for and intervene in case of conflict. In contrast, episodic-memory accounts explain CSEs with bottom-up retrieval of stimulus-response links. Reconciling these opposing views, an emerging perspective holds that memory stores instances of control – abstract control-states – creating a shortcut for effortful control processes. Support comes from a study that assessed CSEs in a prime-target task. Here, repeating an irrelevant context feature boosted CSEs, possibly by retrieving previously stored control-states. We present a conceptual replication using the Eriksen flanker task because previous research found that CSEs in the flanker task reflect different control mechanisms than CSEs in the prime-target task. We measured CSEs while controlling for stimulus–response memory effects and manipulated contextual information (vertical spatial location) independently from the stimulus information, which introduced the conflict (horizontal spatial location). Results replicate previous findings – CSEs increased for context-repetition compared to context-changes. This study shows that retrieval of control-states is not limited to a specific task or context feature and therefore generalizes the notion that abstract control parameters are stored into trial-specific event files.

Alcohol and the dysregulation of cognitive control: Exploring the role of emotion

<p>Alcohol consumption attenuates both the behavioural adjustments and the heightened activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) which are normally observed following errors, leading to the hypothesis that alcohol disrupts the ability to effectively regulate the use of cognitive control. It has furthermore been theorized that these deficits may occur because alcohol reduces the negative affect elicited by unfavourable events, such as errors, thereby weakening the motivation to utilize cognitive control to improve performance. The aim of the current thesis was to provide an empirical test of this model. I carried out two studies in which I examined changes in two physiological indices of affective processing, skin conductance and heart rate, as well as behavioural and EEG responses, following errors on a flanker task. The first study was conducted on sober participants, in order to validate my experimental paradigm, while the second compared the physiological and behavioural effects of errors in participants given either alcohol or a placebo. In both experiments in both experiments, errors produced increased skin conductance responses and heart rate deceleration, and a typical error-related negativity in EEG. However, contrary to what would be expected if alcohol reduced the negative affect generated by errors, no difference in skin conductance or heart rate responses to errors were observed between alcohol and placebo participants in the second study. Furthermore, although intoxicated participants displayed an overall reduction in the use of cognitive control, based on both behavioural (flanker interference) and EEG (occipital alpha power) measures, groups did not differ in the degree to which this control was upregulated immediately after task errors. However, exploratory analyses of EEG indices (the feedback-related negativity and midfrontal theta power) of ACC activity following errors were significantly diminished in intoxicated participants. Overall, these findings suggest that alcohol does not reduce the immediate negative emotional consequences of errors but may instead disrupt brain networks needed for the sustained engagement of cognitive control and attention to task performance.</p>

Alcohol and the dysregulation of cognitive control: Exploring the role of emotion

<p>Alcohol consumption attenuates both the behavioural adjustments and the heightened activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) which are normally observed following errors, leading to the hypothesis that alcohol disrupts the ability to effectively regulate the use of cognitive control. It has furthermore been theorized that these deficits may occur because alcohol reduces the negative affect elicited by unfavourable events, such as errors, thereby weakening the motivation to utilize cognitive control to improve performance. The aim of the current thesis was to provide an empirical test of this model. I carried out two studies in which I examined changes in two physiological indices of affective processing, skin conductance and heart rate, as well as behavioural and EEG responses, following errors on a flanker task. The first study was conducted on sober participants, in order to validate my experimental paradigm, while the second compared the physiological and behavioural effects of errors in participants given either alcohol or a placebo. In both experiments in both experiments, errors produced increased skin conductance responses and heart rate deceleration, and a typical error-related negativity in EEG. However, contrary to what would be expected if alcohol reduced the negative affect generated by errors, no difference in skin conductance or heart rate responses to errors were observed between alcohol and placebo participants in the second study. Furthermore, although intoxicated participants displayed an overall reduction in the use of cognitive control, based on both behavioural (flanker interference) and EEG (occipital alpha power) measures, groups did not differ in the degree to which this control was upregulated immediately after task errors. However, exploratory analyses of EEG indices (the feedback-related negativity and midfrontal theta power) of ACC activity following errors were significantly diminished in intoxicated participants. Overall, these findings suggest that alcohol does not reduce the immediate negative emotional consequences of errors but may instead disrupt brain networks needed for the sustained engagement of cognitive control and attention to task performance.</p>

Can we Measure Individual Differences in Cognitive Measures Reliably via Smartphones? A Comparison of the Flanker Effect Across Device Types and Samples

Research deployed via the internet and administered via smartphones could have access to more diverse samples than lab-based research. Diverse samples could have relatively high variation in their traits and so yield relatively reliable measurements of individual differences in these traits. Cognitive tasks have been reported to yield relatively low reliabities (Hedge et al., 2018), which could potentially be addressed by smartphone-mediated administration in diverse samples. We formulate several criteria to determine whether a cognitive task is suitable for individual differences research on commodity smartphones: no very brief or precise stimulus timing, relative response times (RTs), a maximum of two response options, and a small number of graphical stimuli. The Flanker Task meets these criteria. We compared the reliability of individual differences in the Flanker Effect across samples and devices in a pre-registered study. We found no evidence that a more diverse sample yields higher reliabilities. We also found no evidence that commodity smartphones yield lower reliabilities than commodity laptops. Hence, diverse samples might not improve reliability above student samples, but smartphones may well measure individual differences with cognitive tasks reliably. Exploratively, we examined different reliability coefficients, split-half reliabilities, and the development of reliability estimates as a function of task length.

Mental Fatigue-Associated Decrease in Table Tennis Performance: Is There an Electrophysiological Signature?

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psychobiological state negatively impacting both cognitive and physical performance. Although recent research implies that some table tennis (TT) performance outcomes are impaired by MF, open skill sports such as TT require a more detailed overview of MF-related performance decrements. Moreover, research into MF and sport-specific psychomotor performance lacks the inclusion of brain-related measurements to identify MF mechanisms. Eleven experienced TT players participated in this randomized counterbalanced crossover trial. Participants were either required to perform an individualized Stroop task (MF condition) or watch a documentary (control condition). The primary outcomes were reaction time on a sport-specific visuomotor task and EEG activity throughout the trial. The subjective feeling of MF was significantly different between both conditions and confirmed that the MF condition induced the mentally fatigue state of participants (p < 0.001), though no behavioral indicators (i.e., decrease in performance on Stroop and flanker task) of MF. MF worsened reaction time on the visuomotor task, while other secondary measurements remained largely ambiguous. Spectral power (i.e., decreases in upper α band and θ band) was influenced by MF, while ERPs measured during the visuomotor task remained unaltered. The present study confirms that MF negatively impacts table tennis performance, specifically inhibitory stimuli during the visuomotor task. These findings also further augment our understanding of the effects of MF on human performance.

To Mask or Not to Mask - Evaluation of Cognitive Performance in Children Wearing Face Masks during School Lessons (Maskids)

In the current Sars-CoV-2 pandemic, wearing a face mask was mandatory and is still desired during school lessons. There are no controlled studies in children to date indicating an effect on cognitive performance wearing face masks. In a randomized controlled trial, we analysed the influence of face masks on cognitive performance of pupils during regular school lessons. Pupils (n=133, 5th to 7th grade) were randomized by alternating allocation into control (with masks, n=65) and intervention groups (without mask, n=68). After two school lessons with (control) and without (intervention) face masks in class all pupils performed digital tests for cognitive performance regarding attention and executive functions (Switch, CORSI block tapping, 2-back and flanker task). Overall, there were no significant differences in cognitive performance between both groups, masks vs. no masks. Wearing face masks has no significant influence on attention and executive functions of pupils and can still be recommended during school lessons.

The Effect of Low-Intensity Daily Walking Activity on Cognitive and Brain Function in Older Adults

Physical activity is an effective intervention to prevent or delay cognitive decline and dementia in older adults; however, many have difficulty achieving recommended moderate- to vigorous-intensity guidelines. This study examined the impact of low-intensity daily walking activity on executive cognitive and brain function in 66 older adults (mean age=67.26 ; SD=6.04). Daily walking activity was measured using a step activity monitor and brain function was assessed using functional magnetic resonance imaging during the Flanker task. Analyses included whole and region of interest (ROI) in the right middle frontal gyrus (RMFG), occipital cortex (OCC) and anterior cingulate (ACC). Partial correlations were performed between step activity, behavioral performance, and ROI activation, adjusting for age and education. Most of the step activity was in the low-intensity range. No associations were observed between step activity and task performance (p&gt;.05). Task-related activation occurred in the RMFG, lateral OCC and paracingulate (p&lt;.01). Increased activation in the RMFG was associated with greater amount r(62)=.390, p=.001, duration r(62)=.309, p=.013 and frequency r(62)=.327, p=.007 of step activity. Stratification by sex revealed a positive association between amount of step activity and RMFG activation in women r(44)= .360, p=.014, but not men. Whole brain correlation revealed that amount of step activity was positively associated with precuneus activation (p&lt;.01), an area impacted early in Alzheimer’s disease. These results support the benefits of low intensity daily walking activity on prefrontal function in older adults and suggest the importance of designing attainable and sustainable physical activity interventions to promote brain health in older adults.

EXPRESS: Do cognitive load and ADHD traits affect the tendency to prioritise social information in scenes?

We report two experiments investigating the effect of working memory (WM) load on selective attention. Experiment 1 was a modified version of Lavie et al. (2004) and confirmed that increasing memory load disrupted performance in the classic flanker task. Experiment 2 used the same manipulation of WM load to probe attention during the viewing of complex scenes, while also investigating individual differences in ADHD traits. In the image viewing task, we measured the degree to which fixations targeted each of two crucial objects: (1) a social object (a person in the scene) and (2) a non-social object of higher or lower physical salience. We compared the extent to which increasing WM load would change the pattern of viewing of the physically salient and socially salient objects. If attending to the social item requires greater default voluntary top-down resources, then the viewing of social objects should show stronger modulation by WM load compared to viewing of physically salient objects. The results showed that the social object was fixated to a greater degree than the other object (regardless of physical saliency). Increased saliency drew fixations away from the background leading to slightly increased fixations on the non-social object, without changing fixations on the social object. Increased levels of ADHD-like traits were associated with fewer fixations on the social object, but only in the high salient, low load condition. Importantly, WM load did not affect number of fixations on the social object. Such findings suggest rather surprisingly that attending to a social area in complex stimuli is not dependent on the availability of voluntary topdown resources.