An Outbreak in Pigeons Caused by the Subgenotype VI.2.1.2 of Newcastle Disease Virus in Brazil

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can infect over 250 bird species with variable pathogenicity; it can also infect humans in rare cases. The present study investigated an outbreak in feral pigeons in São Paulo city, Brazil, in 2019. Affected birds displayed neurological signs, and hemorrhages were observed in different tissues. Histopathology changes with infiltration of mononuclear inflammatory cells were also found in the brain, kidney, proventriculus, heart, and spleen. NDV staining was detected by immunohistochemistry. Twenty-seven out of thirty-four tested samples (swabs and tissues) were positive for Newcastle disease virus by RT-qPCR test, targeting the M gene. One isolate, obtained from a pool of positive swab samples, was characterized by the intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) and the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests. This isolate had an ICPI of 0.99, confirming a virulent NDV strain. The monoclonal antibody 617/161, which recognizes a distinct epitope in pigeon NDV strains, inhibited the isolate with an HI titer of 512. A complete genome of NDV was obtained using next-generation sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis based on the complete CDS F gene grouped the detected isolate with other viruses from subgenotype VI.2.1.2, class II, including one previously reported in Southern Brazil in 2014. This study reports a comprehensive characterization of the subgenotype VI.2.1.2, which seems to have been circulating in Brazilian urban areas since 2014. Due to the zoonotic risk of NDV, virus surveillance in feral pigeons should also be systematically performed in urban areas.

Testing pigeon control efficiency by different methods in urban industrial areas, Hungary

The development of cities and urban sprawl has made room for wildlife inhabiting human environments. Among birds, feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica) are often present in large numbers in the cities. Problems related to pigeon occurrence result in economic loss and health issues for humans. There are different methods of controlling pigeon populations in urban areas. In this study, we compared three techniques that can be used for pigeon pest control. In two urban industrial sites in Hungary, we used trapping, falconry (in both Study Area 1 and 2) and mist-netting (only in Study Area 2) to remove pigeons. We compared the effectiveness and limitations of each method. Our results show that over 105 days in Study Area 1, we managed to remove 173 individual pigeons. We did not find a significant difference between the effectiveness of trapping or falconry. In Study Area 2, the overall number of pigeons removed was 1412 over a period of 150 days. There, we managed to catch significantly more birds by netting than by trapping or falconry, but the latter two did not differ statistically. We recommend a combination of techniques for pigeon control. Mist-netting can be the most effective way for direct pigeon removal, whereas trapping is an easier but less efficient method to catch pigeons. Falconry is the least efficient in pigeon catching and requires the most investments, but the bird of prey may chase the pigeons away for a short time.

The Distribution, Density and Movements of Feral Pigeons Columba livia and their Relationship with People

<p>Worldwide increases in the urban human population have led to a rise in human-wildlife conflict in cities. Mitigating human-wildlife conflict requires understanding of both wildlife and their relationship with humans. Feral pigeons (Columba livia), a ubiquitous commensal animal, are a source of human-wildlife conflict due to their waste which fouls and corrodes buildings and pavements, public health concerns and their tendency to forage in groups around people. Feral pigeons are abundant in Wellington City and information is needed to advise a new management strategy to reduce conflict. I aimed to measure the distribution and density of feral pigeons on a landscape scale in Wellington City and their movements in relation to artificial food. I also evaluated people's attitudes to feral pigeons and tolerance for control methods. I measured distribution using a resource use/availability study and density using distance sampling along eight line transects across the city centre in summer and winter. Variables measured for sites used and available to pigeons were assembled into models and compared using an Information Theoretic approach. Pigeon distribution was best explained by the model distance to pigeon feeder site, distance to public space, and landscape type (w = 0.696). Density was higher in winter (6.8 pigeons/ha) than summer (4.5 pigeons/ha), especially in commercial areas (17.8 pigeons/ha winter c.f. summer 5.9 pigeons/ha). Pigeons selected areas closer to pigeon feeder sites and to public spaces, and to landscape types with a higher human density, which suggests public feeding is the main influence on pigeon distribution in Wellington City and limitation of public feeding should form the basis of a management strategy. I observed the movements of 48 banded birds caught at five park capture sites over 38 search sites from June to December in Wellington City to construct minimum convex polygons for the 20 birds that had nine or more observations. The average activity area was 1.87ha, and activity areas ranged from 0.04ha to 10.26ha. Pigeons showed limited movement between sites, with 14 out of the 20 (70%) seen at three or fewer sites. The small activity areas suggest food is locally abundant as pigeons do not have to travel far to meet daily energy requirements. A significant food reduction may be required to decrease the population and should focus on major feeding sites. To investigate people's attitudes to feral pigeons and their control I hand-delivered 800 two page questionnaires to 50 residents at 16 stratified random sites around Wellington City. Questions were asked on residents' attitudes towards pigeons, their environmental knowledge, experiences and actions, and their support for control methods. Attitude towards pigeons was ranked on a scale of -1, 0, and 1 and tested using models composed of different variables. Respondents' attitudes towards pigeons were best explained by whether they fed birds and visited green space. Respondents who fed birds were less negative towards pigeons, while respondents who visited green spaces often were more likely to have a negative opinion. Bird feeders made up 21.5% of respondents while 5% of respondents stated they fed feral pigeons. Regulatory control methods for limiting pigeon population size had support over lethal methods. Survey respondents who fed pigeons had little support for control methods, yet their behaviour change is crucial to the success of a management programme. This shows the importance of consulting the public and allowing them to participate in the management decision making process. As regulatory methods were not considered practical, and banning bird feeding was not considered sensible due to its popularity and the appreciation for wildlife it provides, recommendations were made to use an education and social marketing campaign to reduce pigeon feeding and promote responsible bird feeding.</p>

Pigeons and People: Resource Ecology and Human Dimensions of Urban Wildlife

<p>Urban areas and human populations are growing. Cities provide highly modified habitat for species that can adapt their feeding and other behaviours. The growth of urban landscapes and human populations may result in an increase in human-wildlife conflict. Businesses which prepare and sell food (food establishments) may be more likely to encounter conflict with urban wildlife, which may lead to negative attitudes towards urban wildlife. Negative attitudes towards wildlife could create polarised communities and possibly affect the success of environmental initiatives. This study sought to understand (1) how feral pigeons use urban environments and the resources key to their distribution and congregation; (2) whether feral pigeons are food limited in Wellington City; and (3) how the interactions of owners and managers of food establishments with feral pigeons influence their attitudes to feral pigeons. I used 8 transects through the central City which covered a representative sample of urban habitats, including the central business district, green space, and waterfront to estimate resource selection. Bird capture and banding were used to determine feral pigeon condition at a range of sites across the City and included a mix of high, medium and low anthropogenic fed sites. A written survey of owners and managers of food establishments in Wellington was conducted to evaluate attitudes to feral pigeons (n = 62). Feral pigeon resource selection is mainly influenced by people and where they choose to eat (∆AIC ≤ W = 0.999), such as sites with outdoor seating where people may directly feed feral pigeons. However, once a site has been selected, areas with tertiary vegetation and disposed food (W = 0.324 and W = 0.297) are the most likely to attract larger flocks of feral pigeons (although a number of other variables also influence flock size, such as availability of freshwater). Feral pigeons do not appear to be food limited in Wellington as condition was not significantly different between sites (n=48, body condition, (body mass/tarsus length) Kruskal-Wallis = 2.06, p = 0.36; keel condition, Kruskal-Wallis = 0.7283, p = 0.6948; feather condition Kruskal-Wallis = 2.7943, p = 0.2473). Attitudes of food establishment owners and managers towards feral pigeons are most influenced by how often they see feral pigeons (∆AICc ≤ W = 0:465). Therefore, direct experience rather than knowledge, engagement, action or socio-demographics has the most influence on attitudes of owners and managers of food establishments. These results suggest that feral pigeon populations are largely dependent on the availability of anthropogenic foods. Reducing the food provided by people may limit feral pigeon populations. Reductions in pigeon populations are also likely to change attitudes of business owners and reduce conflict because they will be less likely to encounter pigeons. Limiting feeding and access to food waste is probably the most effective way of managing pigeon populations.</p>

The Distribution, Density and Movements of Feral Pigeons Columba livia and their Relationship with People

<p>Worldwide increases in the urban human population have led to a rise in human-wildlife conflict in cities. Mitigating human-wildlife conflict requires understanding of both wildlife and their relationship with humans. Feral pigeons (Columba livia), a ubiquitous commensal animal, are a source of human-wildlife conflict due to their waste which fouls and corrodes buildings and pavements, public health concerns and their tendency to forage in groups around people. Feral pigeons are abundant in Wellington City and information is needed to advise a new management strategy to reduce conflict. I aimed to measure the distribution and density of feral pigeons on a landscape scale in Wellington City and their movements in relation to artificial food. I also evaluated people's attitudes to feral pigeons and tolerance for control methods. I measured distribution using a resource use/availability study and density using distance sampling along eight line transects across the city centre in summer and winter. Variables measured for sites used and available to pigeons were assembled into models and compared using an Information Theoretic approach. Pigeon distribution was best explained by the model distance to pigeon feeder site, distance to public space, and landscape type (w = 0.696). Density was higher in winter (6.8 pigeons/ha) than summer (4.5 pigeons/ha), especially in commercial areas (17.8 pigeons/ha winter c.f. summer 5.9 pigeons/ha). Pigeons selected areas closer to pigeon feeder sites and to public spaces, and to landscape types with a higher human density, which suggests public feeding is the main influence on pigeon distribution in Wellington City and limitation of public feeding should form the basis of a management strategy. I observed the movements of 48 banded birds caught at five park capture sites over 38 search sites from June to December in Wellington City to construct minimum convex polygons for the 20 birds that had nine or more observations. The average activity area was 1.87ha, and activity areas ranged from 0.04ha to 10.26ha. Pigeons showed limited movement between sites, with 14 out of the 20 (70%) seen at three or fewer sites. The small activity areas suggest food is locally abundant as pigeons do not have to travel far to meet daily energy requirements. A significant food reduction may be required to decrease the population and should focus on major feeding sites. To investigate people's attitudes to feral pigeons and their control I hand-delivered 800 two page questionnaires to 50 residents at 16 stratified random sites around Wellington City. Questions were asked on residents' attitudes towards pigeons, their environmental knowledge, experiences and actions, and their support for control methods. Attitude towards pigeons was ranked on a scale of -1, 0, and 1 and tested using models composed of different variables. Respondents' attitudes towards pigeons were best explained by whether they fed birds and visited green space. Respondents who fed birds were less negative towards pigeons, while respondents who visited green spaces often were more likely to have a negative opinion. Bird feeders made up 21.5% of respondents while 5% of respondents stated they fed feral pigeons. Regulatory control methods for limiting pigeon population size had support over lethal methods. Survey respondents who fed pigeons had little support for control methods, yet their behaviour change is crucial to the success of a management programme. This shows the importance of consulting the public and allowing them to participate in the management decision making process. As regulatory methods were not considered practical, and banning bird feeding was not considered sensible due to its popularity and the appreciation for wildlife it provides, recommendations were made to use an education and social marketing campaign to reduce pigeon feeding and promote responsible bird feeding.</p>

Pigeons and People: Resource Ecology and Human Dimensions of Urban Wildlife

<p>Urban areas and human populations are growing. Cities provide highly modified habitat for species that can adapt their feeding and other behaviours. The growth of urban landscapes and human populations may result in an increase in human-wildlife conflict. Businesses which prepare and sell food (food establishments) may be more likely to encounter conflict with urban wildlife, which may lead to negative attitudes towards urban wildlife. Negative attitudes towards wildlife could create polarised communities and possibly affect the success of environmental initiatives. This study sought to understand (1) how feral pigeons use urban environments and the resources key to their distribution and congregation; (2) whether feral pigeons are food limited in Wellington City; and (3) how the interactions of owners and managers of food establishments with feral pigeons influence their attitudes to feral pigeons. I used 8 transects through the central City which covered a representative sample of urban habitats, including the central business district, green space, and waterfront to estimate resource selection. Bird capture and banding were used to determine feral pigeon condition at a range of sites across the City and included a mix of high, medium and low anthropogenic fed sites. A written survey of owners and managers of food establishments in Wellington was conducted to evaluate attitudes to feral pigeons (n = 62). Feral pigeon resource selection is mainly influenced by people and where they choose to eat (∆AIC ≤ W = 0.999), such as sites with outdoor seating where people may directly feed feral pigeons. However, once a site has been selected, areas with tertiary vegetation and disposed food (W = 0.324 and W = 0.297) are the most likely to attract larger flocks of feral pigeons (although a number of other variables also influence flock size, such as availability of freshwater). Feral pigeons do not appear to be food limited in Wellington as condition was not significantly different between sites (n=48, body condition, (body mass/tarsus length) Kruskal-Wallis = 2.06, p = 0.36; keel condition, Kruskal-Wallis = 0.7283, p = 0.6948; feather condition Kruskal-Wallis = 2.7943, p = 0.2473). Attitudes of food establishment owners and managers towards feral pigeons are most influenced by how often they see feral pigeons (∆AICc ≤ W = 0:465). Therefore, direct experience rather than knowledge, engagement, action or socio-demographics has the most influence on attitudes of owners and managers of food establishments. These results suggest that feral pigeon populations are largely dependent on the availability of anthropogenic foods. Reducing the food provided by people may limit feral pigeon populations. Reductions in pigeon populations are also likely to change attitudes of business owners and reduce conflict because they will be less likely to encounter pigeons. Limiting feeding and access to food waste is probably the most effective way of managing pigeon populations.</p>

Does melanin-based plumage coloration reflect health status of free-living birds in urban environments?

Background Ecological functions and processes in urban ecosystems are governed by various human activities. City-adapted and city-exploiting animal species are expected to present certain specific behavioral and physiological traits in comparison to city-avoiders or conspecific individual frequenting less urbanized or rural environments. A trait of high importance, the plumage color polymorphism has been selected as the main study model and was correlated with different morphological and physiological parameters to highlight its importance in determining the possible health status of urban Feral Pigeons (Columba livia) in North African urban habitats. Methods Different body morphometrics, hematological and hemoparasitic parameters were quantified on free-living Feral Pigeons in urban environments of northern Algeria. Moreover, plumage melanin-based coloration (MBC) was measured and the data collected at the individual scale was correlated with the previous parameters using linear and non-linear modeling approaches. Results Plumage MBC scores of the sampled Feral Pigeons ranged between 0.3% and 74.8%. Among the 12 morphological traits measured, body weight, tail length and total length were deemed to be positively correlated with MBC. Darker morphs appeared to have more hemoparasites compared to lighter pigeons. Quite the same observation goes with the immunity but with non-linear trends. The number of monocytes and granulocytes increased with the increase in MBC levels in lighter morphs, while pigeons with high MBC scores exhibited negative relationships between MBC levels and the number of white blood cells. Conclusions Despite the existence of a number of studies demonstrating phenotypic directional selection, further studies are undoubtedly necessary to understand in detail the underlying mechanisms in species life-history strategies between differently colored individuals. Findings of this correlative study open exciting perspectives revealing that MBC can be considered a good indicator of and health status and adaptation strategies to changes in urban environments.

The First Study of West Nile Virus in Feral Pigeons (Columba livia domestica) Using Conventional Reverse Transcriptase PCR in Semnan and Khorasane-Razavi Provinces, Northeast of Iran

Background: West Nile Virus (WNV) is an arboviral infection continuing to be as major threat to human health as well as the livestock industry all around the world. Birds including pigeons are one of the potential reservoirs for WNV. This study aimed to detect the presence of WNV genome in feral pigeons circulating in Semnan and Khorasane-Razavi Provinces (Iran) including 10 urban and 10 suburban areas. Methods: Totally, 150 samples (brain and kidney) were collected equally from feral pigeons and the presence of WNV genome was evaluated in these samples after RNA extraction. Results: All the samples were negative for the presence of WNV-RNA in this investigation. Conclusion: Although obtained result indicated no evidence of WNV genome in feral pigeons but complementary studies regarding serologic detection of WNV in vertebrate hosts as well as pigeons and identification of arthropod vectors seems necessary for comprehensive determination about infection status in these areas.