Prey preferences of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

Chimpanzees Pan troglodytes are the closest extant relative of modern humans, and are often used as a model organism to help understand prehistoric human behavior and ecology. Originally presumed herbivorous, chimpanzees have been observed hunting 24 species of birds, ungulates, rodents, monkeys, and other primates, using an array of techniques from tools to group cooperation. Using the literature on chimpanzee hunting behavior and diet from 13 studies, we aimed to determine the prey preferences of chimpanzees. We extracted data on prey-specific variables such as targeted species, their body weight, and their abundance within the prey community, and hunter-specific variables such as hunting method, and chimpanzee group size and sex ratio. We used these in a generalized linear model to determine what factors drive chimpanzee prey preference. We calculated a Jacobs’ Index value for each prey species killed at two sites in Uganda and two sites in Tanzania. Chimpanzees prefer prey with a body weight of 7.6 ± 0.4 kg or less, which corresponds to animals such as juvenile bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and guereza colobus monkeys Colobus guereza. Sex ratio in chimpanzee groups appears to drive chimpanzee prey preference, where chimpanzees increasingly prefer prey when in male-dominated groups. Prey preference information from chimpanzee research can assist conservation management programs by identifying key prey species to manage, as well as contribute to a better understanding of the evolution of human hunting behavior.

Prey selectivity and the effect of diet on growth and development of a dragonfly, Sympetrum sanguineum

Despite a long tradition of research, our understanding of mechanisms driving prey selectivity in predatory insects is limited. According to optimal foraging theory, predators should prefer prey which provides the highest amount of energy per unit time. However, prey selectivity may also depend on previous diet and specific nutritional demands of the predator. From the long-term perspective, diet composition affects predator fitness. An open question is whether short-term selectivity of predators provides a diet which is optimal in the long-term. To shed more light on these issues, we conducted laboratory experiments on prey selectivity and its long-term consequences in larvae of the dragonfly Sympetrum sanguineum. We conditioned the larvae to one of two prey types, the cladoceran Daphnia magna and larvae of a non-biting midge Chironomus sp., and then exposed them to various combinations of the two prey types. We found that dragonfly larvae conditioned to Chironomus larvae consumed the same amount of D. magna, but significantly less Chironomus larvae compared to dragonfly larvae conditioned to D. magna. However, there was no effect of previous diet on their success of capture and handling time, suggesting a limited role of learning in their ability to process prey. We then tested the long-term effects of diets with different proportions of both prey for survival and growth of the dragonfly larvae. Individuals fed Chironomus-only diet had higher mortality and slower growth than dragonflies fed D. magna, while larvae fed a mixed diet had the highest survival and growth rate. In conclusion, we show that dragonfly larvae fed by Chironomus larvae performed poorly and compensated by preferring D. magna when both prey types were available. The superiority of the mixed diet suggests that a diverse diet may be needed to satisfy nutritional demands in S. sanguineum larvae. We demonstrate that merging short-term predation experiments with relevant data on predator fitness may provide better understanding of predator-prey interactions and conclude that detailed information on the (mis)matches between prey composition and predator nutritional demands is needed for further progress.

Prey selectivity and the effect of diet on growth and development of a dragonfly, Sympetrum sanguineum

Despite a long tradition of research, our understanding of mechanisms driving prey selectivity in predatory insects is limited. According to optimal foraging theory, predators should prefer prey which provides the highest amount of energy per unit time. However, prey selectivity may also depend on previous experience and nutritional demands driven by stoichiometry. From the long-term perspective, diet composition affects predator fitness. An open question is whether short-term selectivity of predators provides a diet which is optimal in the long-term. To shed more light on these issues, we conducted laboratory experiments on prey selectivity and its long-term consequences in larvae of the dragonfly Sympetrum sanguineum. We conditioned the larvae to one of two prey types, the cladoceran Daphnia magna and Chironomus larvae, and then exposed them to various combinations of the two prey types. We found that dragonfly larvae conditioned to Chironomus larvae consumed the same amount of D. magna, but significantly less Chironomus larvae compared to dragonfly larvae conditioned to D. magna. However, there was no effect of experience on their success of capture and handling time, suggesting a limited role of learning in their ability to process prey. We then tested the long-term effects of diets with different proportions of both prey for survival and growth of the dragonfly larvae. Individuals fed Chironomus-only diet performed significantly worse than dragonflies fed D. magna, while larvae fed a mixed diet performed the best in terms of growth and survival until adulthood. In conclusion, we show that dragonfly larvae fed by Chironomus larvae performed poorly and compensated by preferring D. magna when both prey types were available. The superiority of the mixed diet suggests that a diverse diet may be needed to satisfy nutritional demands in S. sanguineum larvae. We demonstrate that merging short-term predation experiments with relevant data on predator fitness may provide better understanding of predator-prey interactions and conclude that detailed information on the (mis)matches between prey stoichiometry and predator nutritional demands is needed for further progress.

Prey selectivity and the effect of diet on growth and development of a dragonfly, Sympetrum sanguineum

Despite a long tradition of research, our understanding of mechanisms driving prey selectivity in predatory insects is limited. According to optimal foraging theory, predators should prefer prey which provides the highest amount of energy per unit time. However, prey selectivity may also depend on previous experience and nutritional demands driven by stoichiometry. From the long-term perspective, diet composition affects predator fitness. An open question is whether short-term selectivity of predators provides a diet which is optimal in the long-term. To shed more light on these issues, we conducted laboratory experiments on prey selectivity and its long-term consequences in larvae of the dragonfly Sympetrum sanguineum. We conditioned the larvae to one of two prey types, the cladoceran Daphnia magna and Chironomus larvae, and then exposed them to various combinations of the two prey types. We found that dragonfly larvae conditioned to Chironomus larvae consumed the same amount of D. magna, but significantly less Chironomus larvae compared to dragonfly larvae conditioned to D. magna. However, there was no effect of experience on their success of capture and handling time, suggesting a limited role of learning in their ability to process prey. We then tested the long-term effects of diets with different proportions of both prey for survival and growth of the dragonfly larvae. Individuals fed Chironomus-only diet performed significantly worse than dragonflies fed D. magna, while larvae fed a mixed diet performed the best in terms of growth and survival until adulthood. In conclusion, we show that dragonfly larvae fed by Chironomus larvae performed poorly and compensated by preferring D. magna when both prey types were available. The superiority of the mixed diet suggests that a diverse diet may be needed to satisfy nutritional demands in S. sanguineum larvae. We demonstrate that merging short-term predation experiments with relevant data on predator fitness may provide better understanding of predator-prey interactions and conclude that detailed information on the (mis)matches between prey stoichiometry and predator nutritional demands is needed for further progress.

Use of computational fluid dynamics to study forces exerted on prey by aquatic suction feeders

Suction feeding is the most commonly used mechanism of prey capture among aquatic vertebrates. Most previous models of the fluid flow caused by suction feeders involve making several untested assumptions. In this paper, a Chimera overset grids approach is used to solve the governing equations of fluid dynamics in order to investigate the assumptions that prey do not interact with the flow and that the flow can be modelled as a one-dimensional flow. Results show that, for small prey, both neglecting the prey and considering prey interaction give similar calculated forces exerted on the prey. However, as the prey item increases in size toward the size of the gape, its effect on the flow becomes more pronounced. This in turn affects both the magnitude of the hydrodynamic forces imparted to the prey and the time when maximum force is delivered. Maximum force is delivered most quickly to intermediate sized prey, about one-third of mouth diameter, and most slowly to prey less than 7 per cent or greater than 67 per cent of mouth diameter. This suggests that the effect of prey size on the timing of suction forces may have substantial consequences for the feeding ecology of suction feeders that are known to prefer prey between 25 and 50 per cent of mouth diameter. Moreover, for a 15 cm fish with a 15 mm gape, assuming a radial one-dimensional flow field can result in underestimating the maximum force exerted on a 5 mm diameter spherical prey 1 gape distance from the mouth by up to 28.7 per cent.

Running the gauntlet: the predation environment of small fish in the northern Gulf of St Lawrence, Canada

Predation size spectra were constructed for the northern Gulf of St Lawrence, covering prey size ranges that include pre-recruit cod. Predation by fish and harp seals was modelled with a log-normally distributed predator–prey size ratio along with a relationship between predator body size and the energy required. Fish concentrate predation on prey of weight 0.5–2 g, whereas harp seals prefer prey of 60–125 g. It is speculated that predation caused by harp seals on pre-recruits could be a major factor limiting cod recruitment in the system. The northern Gulf of St Lawrence is a cold boreal system with a large predatory seal population, and cod recruit older than elsewhere. Therefore, cod recruitment may be more strongly affected by predation in the northern Gulf of St Lawrence than in warmer systems such as the North Sea, where recruitment is strongly influenced by temperature.

Foraging behaviour of oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus specializing on different species of prey

Adult oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus specializing on four prey species, the mussel Mytilus edulis, the winkle Littorina littorea, the ragworm Nereis diversicolor, and the clam Scrobicularia plana, were compared. Some clear trends from mussels to winkles to clams to worms were identified. First, mean biomass (size) of prey decreased but more prey were attacked per unit time and, since fewer attacks were aborted, more prey were actually captured per unit time. Second, handling time decreased, and birds raised their heads less often while handling a prey item and carried prey less frequently. Third, foraging density, attack rate, and avoidance rate all decreased. However, average rates of food intake did not follow the same order and were inconsistent with the expected preference for prey. The greatest intake rate was achieved by birds specializing on clams, the least preferred prey. The rate of intake of mussels, the most preferred prey, was significantly lower. Alternatives to the energy rate maximization model to explain prey preference are discussed and dismissed. The results of this study contrast with those from several studies on prey-size selection within a single prey species, which show that oystercatchers prefer prey that maximize their intake rates. We suggest that the basis for selecting a prey species and for selecting different size classes within one prey species may be quite different.