Human mitochondrial DNA diversity is compatible with the multiregional continuity theory of the origin of Homo sapiens

Confidence intervals for estimates of human mtDNA sequence diversity, chimpanzee-human mtDNA sequence divergence, and the time of splitting of the pongid-hominid lineages are presented. Consistent with all the data used in estimating the coalescence time for human mitochondrial lineages to a common ancestral mitochondrion is a range of dates from less than 79,000 years ago to more than 1,139,000 years ago. Consequently, the hypothesis that a migration of modern humans (Homo sapiens) out of Africa in the range of 140,000 to 280,000 years ago resulted in the complete replacement, without genetic interchange, of earlier Eurasian hominid populations (Homo erectus) is but one of several possible interpretations of the mtDNA data. The data are also compatible with the hypothesis, suggested earlier and supported by fossil evidence, of a single, more ancient expansion of the range of Homo erectus from Africa, followed by a gradual transition to Homo sapiens in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Bacterial DNA Diversity among Clear and Cloudy Sakes, and Sake-kasu

Background: The traditional Japanese alcoholic drink, sake, is classified into two types: those that contain sediment produced during the production process (cloudy sakes) and those that do not contain such sediment (clear sakes). Leftover pressed sediment from the sake production process, sake-kasu (sake cake or sake lees), is commercially available and is highly nutritious for humans. Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the difference among component bacterial DNA sequences of clear and cloudy sakes, and sake-kasu. Methods: We compared the 16S rDNA sequences from 44 samples of clear sake, 3 samples of cloudy sake, and 11 samples of sake-kasu. Results: The DNA sequences were divided into three major clusters; however, sequences in sake-kasu were located in just one cluster forming two lineages. The microbial diversity in sake-kasu was lower than that in clear and cloudy sakes, which may be because some of the contaminating bacterial cells do not lyse during the production process and remain intact, along with yeast cells, in sake-kasu. Conclusion: Bacterial DNA frequently detected in sake samples was from environmental bacterial contamination that occurs early in the sake production process. Contaminating bacteria are usually killed by the ethanol produced as the sake yeast grows; after which, if bacteria lyse, the bacterial DNA is released into the sake solution. However, if the bacterial cells do not lyse, they will precipitate toward the sediment. Thus, there is bacterial DNA diversity in clear and cloudy sake, but less diversity in sake-kasu.