Gadolinium Endofullerenes

Fullerenes—A new combining atoms of carbon atoms into the molecule, which can serve as the parent and precursor of a whole class advanced organic compounds. Unsolved problems associated with a correct understanding of the structure, transformation, and behavior of the fullerene C60 molecule, make it impossible to interpret correctly many of its physicochemical properties. Fullerenes are a new compounds of carbon atoms into a molecule that can serve as the parent and precursor of the whole class of the newest organic compounds. Unresolved problems connected with correct understanding of structure, transformation and behavior of fullerene molecule C60, do not allow to interpret many of its physico-chemical properties correctly. Since the discovery of fullerenes and the subsequent study of their properties, the interaction of fullerenes with metals is of fundamental interest. C60-building block (molecule), is similar to the atom, which can be used to create new materials. It has its physical and chemical properties, which a separate atom can't exhibit. First of all it concerns the fact that this molecule, unlike all molecules known up to the present time, has its own surface. The presence of the surface allows the fullerene molecule to behave as a molecule and as a solid nanoparticle. The dualism of the fullerene molecule allows it, unlike other carbon allotropic forms, to dissolve in various liquid mediums. The presence of the surface allows fullerene to enclose in its volume separate atoms and molecules. After the initial detection of fullerenes, multiple attempts are made to obtain, distinguish and characterize fullerenes containing metal atoms in their volume. In the present work the research of the products formed in joint arc evaporation of graphite and gadolinium is carried out. The products formed on the cathode and on the reactor walls are investigated. On the example of gadolinium-containing endofullerenes the conditions of formation of nanoproducts in plasma conditions, in solutions and at their crystallization are discussed.

The Discovery of the Subatomic Particles : From Atoms to Quarks

The change from the traditional Western and Chinese view of the elements involving materials such as water, air, earth, wood, metal and fire, to the chemical elements making up the periodic table, to atoms, to particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons, and then to quarks was inevitable. The order of discovery of these ideas of the ultimate constituents of matter was necessary, in that they could not have been discovered in any other order. This was because nature has a particular structure and we have a particular place in nature. The traditional view of the elements could be obtained by naked eye observation, and the view of nature as being made up of the chemical elements in the periodic table was next discovered, as it involved the decomposition of traditional elements, such as air and water. This led to the idea there was a separate atom for each element which explained the differences between the elements. The sub atomic particles were discovered in a necessary order with the outer particles like the electron being discovered earlier, and inner particles such as quarks being discovered later. The order of discovery of particles was also affected by the properties of the particles. The charges of particles, their mass and ability to survive outside the particles they make up, and other properties will make a particle harder or easier to discover. The order of discovery is inevitable and set by the structure of the universe. The structure of the universe includes the structure of the atom, and of the particles making up the atom, and the properties of the atom, and of the particles making up the atom.