Large silicic magma bodies and very large magnitude explosive eruptions

Over the last 20 years, new concepts have emerged into understanding the processes that lead to build up to large silicic explosive eruptions based on integration of geophysical, geochemical, petrological, geochronological and dynamical modelling. Silicic melts are generated within magma systems extending throughout the crust by segregation from mushy zones. Segregated melt layers become unstable and can assemble into ephemeral upper crustal magma chambers rapidly prior to eruption. In the next 10 years, we can expect major advances in dynamical models as well as in analytical and geophysical methods, which need to be underpinned in field research.

Supplemental Material: Biotite as a recorder of an exsolved Li-rich volatile phase in upper-crustal silicic magma reservoirs

Supplemental Figures S1–S8 (additional compositional information relevant to this study), and a supplemental dataset (all new data for this study and reference materials).<br>

Supplemental Material: Biotite as a recorder of an exsolved Li-rich volatile phase in upper-crustal silicic magma reservoirs

Supplemental Figures S1–S8 (additional compositional information relevant to this study), and a supplemental dataset (all new data for this study and reference materials).<br>

Post-Oruanui supereruption recovery, reconstruction and evolution of Taupo volcano, New Zealand

<p>This thesis research presents geochemical perspectives on the magmatic recovery of Taupo volcano (New Zealand) in the aftermath of the 25.4 ka Oruanui supereruption. Following the Oruanui, and after only ~5 kyr of quiescence, Taupo erupted three small volume (~0.1 km3) dacitic units, followed by another ~5 kyr break, and then the modern sequence from ~12 ka onwards of 25 rhyolitic units organised into 3 geochemically distinct subgroups (SG1-SG3). The eruptive units are stratigraphically constrained over exceptionally short time intervals, providing fine-scale temporal snapshots of the magma system. In this thesis I compare and contrast whole-rock, mineral and glass compositions of Oruanui and post-Oruanui magmas through time to investigate the post-supereruption reconstruction and evolution of Taupo through to the latest eruption. Despite overlapping vent sites and crustal source domains between the Oruanui and post-Oruanui eruptions, U/Th disequilibrium model-ages in zircons from Taupo SG1 rhyolites (erupted 12 ka-10 ka) and SG2 rhyolites (erupted 7 ka-2.6 ka) imply the presence of only minor inheritance of crystals from the Oruanui magma source. Post-Oruanui model-age spectra are instead typically centred close to eruption ages with subordinate older pre-300 ka equiline grains. U-Pb dating of these equiline grains shows that both 300-450 ka plutonic-derived and pre-100 Ma greywacke basement-derived zircons are present. The former largely coincide in age with zircons from the 350 ka Whakamaru eruption products, and are dominant over greywacke in young units which were vented within the published Whakamaru caldera outline. Despite multiple ages and vent sites, trace element compositions are broadly similar in zircons, regardless of their ages. However, a small subset of zircons analysed from SG1 rhyolites have notably high concentrations of U, Th, P, Y+ (REE)3+ and Nb but with only minor changes in Hf and Ti. SG2 zircons typically have higher Sc, reflecting large-scale changes in melt chemistry and crystallising mineral phases with time. The age spectra indicate that most Oruanui zircons were removed by thermally induced dissolution immediately following the supereruption. U-Th ages from individual post-Oruanui eruptions show consistent inheritance of post-Oruanui grains with model ages that centre between the temporally separated but geographically overlapping eruption groups, generating model-age modes. Within the statistical limitations of the isotopic measurements, we interpret these repeated modes to be significant, resulting from incorporation of crystal populations from cyclic post-Oruanui periods of magmatic cooling and crystallisation, acting within a crustal protolith chemically independent of that which built the Oruanui. Cooling periods alternate with times of rejuvenation and eruption, in some cases demonstrably accompanying syn-eruptive regional rifting and mafic injection. Not only were the processes that developed the supersized Oruanui magma body unusually rapid, but this huge magma system was effectively reset and rebuilt on a comparably short timescale. Major and trace element whole rock, glass and mineral chemistry of post-Oruanui eruptive products indicate how the host magma system re-established and evolved. The dacite units show wide variations in melt inclusion compositions and strongly zoned minerals consistent with interaction of less-evolved mafic magmas at a depths of >8 km, overlapping with the inferred base of the old Oruanui mush system. The dacites reflect the first products of the rebuilding silicic magma system, as most of the Oruanui mush was reconfigured or significantly modified in composition following thermal fluxing accompanying post-caldera collapse readjustment. The first (SG1) rhyolites erupted from 12 ka formed through shallow fractionation (4-5 km depth) and cooling of a parental melt similar in composition to the earlier dacite melts, with overlapping melt inclusion and crystal core compositions between the two magma types. For the younger rhyolite units, fine-scale temporal changes in melt chemistry and mineral phase stability occur over time, which are closely linked to the development, stabilisation and maturation of a new and likely unitary rhyolite mush system at Taupo. The new mush system is closely linked to and sometimes physically interacts with the underlying mafic melts, which are similar in composition to those involved in the Oruanui eruption and provide the long-term thermal and chemical driving force for magmatism. We consider that the new mush body has expanded to >250 km3 (and possibly up to 1000 km3) but has not yet been located by geophysical investigations. For the most recent SG3 eruptions, the system once again underwent widespread destabilisation, resulting in increased levels of melt extraction from the silicic mush. Trends in whole-rock chemistry and close links between melt inclusions and mineral zoning with earlier units indicates that the 35 km3 Unit Y (Taupo eruption) melt dominant body formed in response to mafic disruption of the silicic mush pile. Associated Fe-Mg diffusion timescales in orthopyroxene suggest that Taupo is capable of changing behaviour and generating large eruptible melt bodies on timescales as short as decades to centuries. The 232 AD Unit Y eruption culminated from a critical combination of high differential tectonic stress build up, and increased potency in the silicic magma system resulting from elevated levels of mafic magma input, resulting in one of the largest and most violent worldwide Holocene eruptions. The post-Y magma system then responded to further disruption with the eruption of sub-lacustrine dome(s). Taupo is considered to be capable of rapidly recovering in its modern form to continue its hyperactive eruptive behaviour on timescales that are of human interest and concern.</p>

Post-Oruanui supereruption recovery, reconstruction and evolution of Taupo volcano, New Zealand

<p>This thesis research presents geochemical perspectives on the magmatic recovery of Taupo volcano (New Zealand) in the aftermath of the 25.4 ka Oruanui supereruption. Following the Oruanui, and after only ~5 kyr of quiescence, Taupo erupted three small volume (~0.1 km3) dacitic units, followed by another ~5 kyr break, and then the modern sequence from ~12 ka onwards of 25 rhyolitic units organised into 3 geochemically distinct subgroups (SG1-SG3). The eruptive units are stratigraphically constrained over exceptionally short time intervals, providing fine-scale temporal snapshots of the magma system. In this thesis I compare and contrast whole-rock, mineral and glass compositions of Oruanui and post-Oruanui magmas through time to investigate the post-supereruption reconstruction and evolution of Taupo through to the latest eruption. Despite overlapping vent sites and crustal source domains between the Oruanui and post-Oruanui eruptions, U/Th disequilibrium model-ages in zircons from Taupo SG1 rhyolites (erupted 12 ka-10 ka) and SG2 rhyolites (erupted 7 ka-2.6 ka) imply the presence of only minor inheritance of crystals from the Oruanui magma source. Post-Oruanui model-age spectra are instead typically centred close to eruption ages with subordinate older pre-300 ka equiline grains. U-Pb dating of these equiline grains shows that both 300-450 ka plutonic-derived and pre-100 Ma greywacke basement-derived zircons are present. The former largely coincide in age with zircons from the 350 ka Whakamaru eruption products, and are dominant over greywacke in young units which were vented within the published Whakamaru caldera outline. Despite multiple ages and vent sites, trace element compositions are broadly similar in zircons, regardless of their ages. However, a small subset of zircons analysed from SG1 rhyolites have notably high concentrations of U, Th, P, Y+ (REE)3+ and Nb but with only minor changes in Hf and Ti. SG2 zircons typically have higher Sc, reflecting large-scale changes in melt chemistry and crystallising mineral phases with time. The age spectra indicate that most Oruanui zircons were removed by thermally induced dissolution immediately following the supereruption. U-Th ages from individual post-Oruanui eruptions show consistent inheritance of post-Oruanui grains with model ages that centre between the temporally separated but geographically overlapping eruption groups, generating model-age modes. Within the statistical limitations of the isotopic measurements, we interpret these repeated modes to be significant, resulting from incorporation of crystal populations from cyclic post-Oruanui periods of magmatic cooling and crystallisation, acting within a crustal protolith chemically independent of that which built the Oruanui. Cooling periods alternate with times of rejuvenation and eruption, in some cases demonstrably accompanying syn-eruptive regional rifting and mafic injection. Not only were the processes that developed the supersized Oruanui magma body unusually rapid, but this huge magma system was effectively reset and rebuilt on a comparably short timescale. Major and trace element whole rock, glass and mineral chemistry of post-Oruanui eruptive products indicate how the host magma system re-established and evolved. The dacite units show wide variations in melt inclusion compositions and strongly zoned minerals consistent with interaction of less-evolved mafic magmas at a depths of >8 km, overlapping with the inferred base of the old Oruanui mush system. The dacites reflect the first products of the rebuilding silicic magma system, as most of the Oruanui mush was reconfigured or significantly modified in composition following thermal fluxing accompanying post-caldera collapse readjustment. The first (SG1) rhyolites erupted from 12 ka formed through shallow fractionation (4-5 km depth) and cooling of a parental melt similar in composition to the earlier dacite melts, with overlapping melt inclusion and crystal core compositions between the two magma types. For the younger rhyolite units, fine-scale temporal changes in melt chemistry and mineral phase stability occur over time, which are closely linked to the development, stabilisation and maturation of a new and likely unitary rhyolite mush system at Taupo. The new mush system is closely linked to and sometimes physically interacts with the underlying mafic melts, which are similar in composition to those involved in the Oruanui eruption and provide the long-term thermal and chemical driving force for magmatism. We consider that the new mush body has expanded to >250 km3 (and possibly up to 1000 km3) but has not yet been located by geophysical investigations. For the most recent SG3 eruptions, the system once again underwent widespread destabilisation, resulting in increased levels of melt extraction from the silicic mush. Trends in whole-rock chemistry and close links between melt inclusions and mineral zoning with earlier units indicates that the 35 km3 Unit Y (Taupo eruption) melt dominant body formed in response to mafic disruption of the silicic mush pile. Associated Fe-Mg diffusion timescales in orthopyroxene suggest that Taupo is capable of changing behaviour and generating large eruptible melt bodies on timescales as short as decades to centuries. The 232 AD Unit Y eruption culminated from a critical combination of high differential tectonic stress build up, and increased potency in the silicic magma system resulting from elevated levels of mafic magma input, resulting in one of the largest and most violent worldwide Holocene eruptions. The post-Y magma system then responded to further disruption with the eruption of sub-lacustrine dome(s). Taupo is considered to be capable of rapidly recovering in its modern form to continue its hyperactive eruptive behaviour on timescales that are of human interest and concern.</p>

The Petrology and Genesis of Silicic Magmas in the Kermadec Arc

<p>Recent work has shown that silicic volcanism can be abundant in intra-oceanic subduction settings, and is often associated with large explosive caldera-forming eruptions. Several major petrogenetic questions arise over the origin and eruption of large amounts of silicic magma at these relatively simple subduction settings. This study has investigated the geochemistry of pyroclasts collected from four volcanoes along the Kermadec arc, a young (<2 Myr) oceanic subduction zone in the southwest Pacific. Raoul, Macauley and a newly discovered volcano (here informally named 'New volcano') in the northern Kermadec arc, and Healy volcano in the southern Kermadec arc have all erupted dacitic to rhyolitic pumice within the last 10 kyr. For Raoul, New volcano and Healy, whole rock major element compositions fall with a limited compositional range. In contrast, pumice dredged from around Macauley caldera covers a wide compositional range indicating that there have been multiple silicic eruptions, not just the Sandy Bay Tephra exposed on Macauley Island. Distinctive crystal populations in both pumice samples and plutonic xenoliths suggest that many of the crystals did not grow in the evolved magmas, but were mixed in from other sources including gabbros and tonalites. Such open system mixing is ubiquitous in magmas from the four Kermadec volcanoes studied here. Silicic magmas, co-eruptive mafic enclaves and previously erupted basalts show sub-parallel REE patterns, and crystal composition and zonation suggests that mafic and silicic magmas have a strong genetic affiliation. Examination of whole rock, glass and mineral chemistry reveals that evolved magmas can be generated at each volcano through 60-75% crystal fractionation of a basaltic parent. These findings are not consistent with silicic magma generation via crustal anatexis, as previously suggested for the Kermadec arc. Although crystallisation is the dominant process driving melt evolution in the Kermadec volcanoes, the magmatic systems are open to contributions from both newly arriving melts and wholly crystalline plutonic bodies. Such processes occur in variable proportions between magma batches, and are largely reflected by small scale chemical variations between eruption units. Larger scale chemical trends reflect the position of the volcanoes along the arc, which in turn may reflect structural changes in the subduction zone and variations in sediment influx.</p>

The Petrology and Genesis of Silicic Magmas in the Kermadec Arc

<p>Recent work has shown that silicic volcanism can be abundant in intra-oceanic subduction settings, and is often associated with large explosive caldera-forming eruptions. Several major petrogenetic questions arise over the origin and eruption of large amounts of silicic magma at these relatively simple subduction settings. This study has investigated the geochemistry of pyroclasts collected from four volcanoes along the Kermadec arc, a young (<2 Myr) oceanic subduction zone in the southwest Pacific. Raoul, Macauley and a newly discovered volcano (here informally named 'New volcano') in the northern Kermadec arc, and Healy volcano in the southern Kermadec arc have all erupted dacitic to rhyolitic pumice within the last 10 kyr. For Raoul, New volcano and Healy, whole rock major element compositions fall with a limited compositional range. In contrast, pumice dredged from around Macauley caldera covers a wide compositional range indicating that there have been multiple silicic eruptions, not just the Sandy Bay Tephra exposed on Macauley Island. Distinctive crystal populations in both pumice samples and plutonic xenoliths suggest that many of the crystals did not grow in the evolved magmas, but were mixed in from other sources including gabbros and tonalites. Such open system mixing is ubiquitous in magmas from the four Kermadec volcanoes studied here. Silicic magmas, co-eruptive mafic enclaves and previously erupted basalts show sub-parallel REE patterns, and crystal composition and zonation suggests that mafic and silicic magmas have a strong genetic affiliation. Examination of whole rock, glass and mineral chemistry reveals that evolved magmas can be generated at each volcano through 60-75% crystal fractionation of a basaltic parent. These findings are not consistent with silicic magma generation via crustal anatexis, as previously suggested for the Kermadec arc. Although crystallisation is the dominant process driving melt evolution in the Kermadec volcanoes, the magmatic systems are open to contributions from both newly arriving melts and wholly crystalline plutonic bodies. Such processes occur in variable proportions between magma batches, and are largely reflected by small scale chemical variations between eruption units. Larger scale chemical trends reflect the position of the volcanoes along the arc, which in turn may reflect structural changes in the subduction zone and variations in sediment influx.</p>