Population genetics of the school shark (Galeorhinus galeus) in New Zealand, Australian and Chilean waters

<p>The school shark (Galeorhinus galeus) is a coastal bentho-pelagic species that is highly migratory and has a widespread distribution in temperate waters. This species matures late, has a relatively low fecundity and is slow growing, which makes it vulnerable to overfishing. They are commercially fished throughout their distribution, and some global stocks have been under pressure because of poor management. In Australia, longline and gillnet fisheries targeted pregnant females and juveniles around Victorian and Tasmanian nursery grounds, resulting in loss of historical inshore nursery habitat. School shark tagging programmes have reported migration between Australian and New Zealand stocks, but preliminary genetic studies have suggested that there are slight genetic differences between the stocks. Currently, the Australian and New Zealand school shark fisheries are assessed and managed as separate stocks. However, the question of whether this species is comprised of a single population or multiple sub-populations in the South Pacific remains unresolved. Given the commercial importance of the school shark fisheries and the concern about stock levels on the regional and trans-Tasman scales, knowledge of stock structure is essential for effective management. The aim of this thesis research was to determine the levels of genetic diversity and population structure of G. galeus in New Zealand and Australia, and compare these to a population in Chile, using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing and microsatellite DNA markers. The DNA sequence of an 893 base pair region of the mtDNA control region (CR) was determined using 475 school shark samples and nine microsatellite DNA loci were genotyped in 239 individuals. Analyses of the data revealed strong evidence of genetic differentiation between G. galeus populations in Australasia and Chile, suggesting restricted gene flow among populations in the western and eastern areas of the Pacific Ocean. The FST values ranged from 0.188 to 0.300 for CR mtDNA, and 0.195 to 0.247 for microsatellite DNA in G. galeus. However, there was no evidence of stock differentiation among New Zealand/Australian sample sites for either mtDNA or microsatellite DNA data. These results support the model of a single panmictic stock across the Tasman Sea. The similarity of the results obtained from the maternally inherited mtDNA and biparental inherited microsatellite loci did not support the suggestion of sex-biased dispersal of G. galeus in the New Zealand/Australia region and it was concluded that females and males had similar patterns of dispersal. Sharks can be either monogamous or polygamous, which is important when considering stock assessments and harvesting models. Multiple paternity has been reported in several shark species, however, the number of sires per litter varies considerably among species. An investigation of multiple paternity (MP) was conducted in G. galeus by assessing the levels of relatedness within progeny arrays using six polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers. Five “families” (mother and litters) were sampled from the North Island of New Zealand and a parentage analysis was conducted. The minimum number of males contributing to each progeny array was estimated by identifying the putative paternal alleles by allele counting and reconstructing multilocus genotypes method. The analysis showed the occurrence of genetic polyandry in G. galeus; two of five litters showing multiple sires involved in the progeny arrays (40%). The minimum number of sires per litter ranged from one to four. Although MP was only detected in two litters, this finding is consistent with the known reproductive characteristics of G. galeus. It can potentially store sperm for long periods of time and has a specific mating season when males and females typically mix on the edge of the continental shelf. Detecting MP within a litter has highlighted the importance of the post-copulatory selective processes in the G. galeus mating system, and this has implications for the management and conservation of genetic diversity.</p>

Population genetics of the school shark (Galeorhinus galeus) in New Zealand, Australian and Chilean waters

<p>The school shark (Galeorhinus galeus) is a coastal bentho-pelagic species that is highly migratory and has a widespread distribution in temperate waters. This species matures late, has a relatively low fecundity and is slow growing, which makes it vulnerable to overfishing. They are commercially fished throughout their distribution, and some global stocks have been under pressure because of poor management. In Australia, longline and gillnet fisheries targeted pregnant females and juveniles around Victorian and Tasmanian nursery grounds, resulting in loss of historical inshore nursery habitat. School shark tagging programmes have reported migration between Australian and New Zealand stocks, but preliminary genetic studies have suggested that there are slight genetic differences between the stocks. Currently, the Australian and New Zealand school shark fisheries are assessed and managed as separate stocks. However, the question of whether this species is comprised of a single population or multiple sub-populations in the South Pacific remains unresolved. Given the commercial importance of the school shark fisheries and the concern about stock levels on the regional and trans-Tasman scales, knowledge of stock structure is essential for effective management. The aim of this thesis research was to determine the levels of genetic diversity and population structure of G. galeus in New Zealand and Australia, and compare these to a population in Chile, using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequencing and microsatellite DNA markers. The DNA sequence of an 893 base pair region of the mtDNA control region (CR) was determined using 475 school shark samples and nine microsatellite DNA loci were genotyped in 239 individuals. Analyses of the data revealed strong evidence of genetic differentiation between G. galeus populations in Australasia and Chile, suggesting restricted gene flow among populations in the western and eastern areas of the Pacific Ocean. The FST values ranged from 0.188 to 0.300 for CR mtDNA, and 0.195 to 0.247 for microsatellite DNA in G. galeus. However, there was no evidence of stock differentiation among New Zealand/Australian sample sites for either mtDNA or microsatellite DNA data. These results support the model of a single panmictic stock across the Tasman Sea. The similarity of the results obtained from the maternally inherited mtDNA and biparental inherited microsatellite loci did not support the suggestion of sex-biased dispersal of G. galeus in the New Zealand/Australia region and it was concluded that females and males had similar patterns of dispersal. Sharks can be either monogamous or polygamous, which is important when considering stock assessments and harvesting models. Multiple paternity has been reported in several shark species, however, the number of sires per litter varies considerably among species. An investigation of multiple paternity (MP) was conducted in G. galeus by assessing the levels of relatedness within progeny arrays using six polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers. Five “families” (mother and litters) were sampled from the North Island of New Zealand and a parentage analysis was conducted. The minimum number of males contributing to each progeny array was estimated by identifying the putative paternal alleles by allele counting and reconstructing multilocus genotypes method. The analysis showed the occurrence of genetic polyandry in G. galeus; two of five litters showing multiple sires involved in the progeny arrays (40%). The minimum number of sires per litter ranged from one to four. Although MP was only detected in two litters, this finding is consistent with the known reproductive characteristics of G. galeus. It can potentially store sperm for long periods of time and has a specific mating season when males and females typically mix on the edge of the continental shelf. Detecting MP within a litter has highlighted the importance of the post-copulatory selective processes in the G. galeus mating system, and this has implications for the management and conservation of genetic diversity.</p>

Reconstruction of Marine Commercial Landings for the Brazilian Industrial and Artisanal Fisheries From 1950 to 2015

Landing data are the most basic information used to manage fisheries, although they are often unavailable or incomplete. The objective of this work was to reconstruct the national database of marine commercial landings for the Brazilian industrial and artisanal fisheries, from 1950 to 2015. Total landings increased strongly from 1950 to mid-1980s and suffered sharp decline in the early 1990s, mainly associated to the collapse of sardine fisheries. After that, another period of increasing landings was observed, but at a much lower rate. Industrial landings always surpassed artisanal landings in Brazilian waters, except for the beginning of the time series, when many industrial fleets had not started yet, and in the early 2000s, when a change in the methodology for collecting landing statistics was implemented in the state of Pará leading to an overestimation of artisanal landings. Artisanal fisheries have been declining since 2005, which is worrisome due to the social impact it may have on local income and food security. Regional differences were also observed, with industrial landings being always higher than artisanal landings in southeastern-southern Brazil, while the opposite was true for the northern-northeastern regions. Higher landings were observed in the southeastern-southern regions when both artisanal and industrial fleets were combined. Sardine and demersal fishes were the main resources landed by industrial fishers. Artisanal fishers caught more species than their industrial counterpart, featuring Xiphopenaeus kroyeri, Cynoscion acoupa, and Ucides cordatus. Although the fishing of Epinephelus itajara was banned in Brazil, it continues to be landed. Yet, catches of this species and others under some threat status are still not properly registered, including: Carcharhinus longimanus, Galeorhinus galeus, Sphyrna lewini, Sphyrna mokarran, Pristis pectinata, and Pseudobatos horkelii. Fishing resources not identified in previous landing reconstruction efforts, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers, have now been reported. The database presented here should be continuously updated and improved. It is of paramount importance to resume the collection of landing statistics, including information on fishing effort, to assess the relative impact of fisheries and environmental factors on the main Brazilian fishing stocks.

Possible causes of a substantial decline in sightings in South Africa of an ecologically important apex predator, the white shark

A decline in sightings of a top predator, the white shark (Carcharadon carcharias), in South Africa was quantified in order to identify possible causes for this decline. White shark sightings data across 8 years (2011–2018), recorded from a cage-diving vessel in Gansbaai are reported. A significant decline in mean total white shark sightings per boat trip (>6 in 2011 to <1 in 2018) and a 69% reduction in the probability of a sighting were found. Correlating with this decline in sightings is a rise in sightings of sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus) in False Bay and copper sharks (Carcharhinus brachyurus) in Gansbaai, as well as substantial ecosystem changes. The effects of lethal conservation measures such as the use of shark nets in KwaZulu-Natal; the direct and indirect effects of overfishing including a reduction in smoothhound (Mustelus mustelus) and soupfin (Galeorhinus galeus) sharks; and novel predation on white sharks are discussed as possible causative factors for this decline in white shark sightings.

Diverse Activity Rhythms in Sharks (Elasmobranchii)

Sharks are an interesting group of vertebrates, as many species swim continuously to “ram” oxygen-rich seawater over their gills (ram ventilators), whereas other species “pump” seawater over their gills by manipulating buccal cavity volume while remaining motionless (buccal pumpers). This difference in respiratory physiology raises the question: What are the implications of these differences in lifestyle for circadian rhythms? We investigated the diel activity patterns of 5 species of sharks, including 3 ram ventilating species: the school shark ( Galeorhinus galeus), the spotted estuary smooth-hound ( Mustelus lenticulatus), and the spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias); and 2 buccal pumping species: the Port Jackson ( Heterodontus portusjacksoni) and draughtsboard ( Cephaloscyllium isabellum) sharks. We measured the amount, duration, and distance traveled while swimming over multiple days under a 12:12 light:dark light regime for all species and used modified light regimes for species with a clear diel rhythm in activity. We identified a surprising diversity of activity rhythms. The school shark and smooth-hound swam continuously; however, whereas the school shark swam at the same speed and covered the same distance during the day and night, the smooth-hound swam slower at night and traversed a shorter distance. A similar pattern was observed in the spiny dogfish, although this shark swam less overall. Both the Port Jackson and draughtsboard sharks showed a marked nocturnal preference for swimming. This pattern was muted and disrupted during constant light and constant dark regimes, although circadian organization of this pattern was maintained under certain conditions. The consequences of these patterns for other biological processes, such as sleep, remain unclear. Nonetheless, these 5 species demonstrate remarkable diversity within the activity rhythms of sharks.

British sharks in Sicily: records of long distance migration of tope shark (Galeorhinus galeus) from North-eastern Atlantic to Mediterranean Sea.

The study reports information about the recapture of two tagged adult females of tope shark, Galeorhinus galeus (Linnaeus 1758), in the central Mediterranean Sea (south coasts of Sicily) in 2014 and 2017. The two females were tagged in North-East Atlantic, respectively in Scotland in 2009 and Ireland in 2015. The Scottish specimen was a 175 cm female increasing of about 10 kg in body weight and 37 cm in total length during its 1967 days at liberty (5.39 years). The Irish one, was a pregnant female of an estimated age of 15-17 year which spent 248 days at liberty increasing 14 cm during this period. The growth rate of the two specimens was therefore between 6.8 and 7.8 cm year-1, faster than the annual increments of adults suggested in previous studies. Previous tope recapture records in the Mediterranean Sea were limited to the Alboran Sea, coast of Valencia and the Algerian coasts. The two tope females recaptured in the Strait of Sicily provided the first evidence of long distance entrance of NE Atlantic tope in the Mediterranean Sea. The well known occurrence of mature females and juveniles in this area of the Mediterranean suggest the hypothesis of a migration of adults female from their feeding grounds in north eastern Atlantic to lower latitudes up to the Mediterranean Sea for parturition.