7. The ‘Middle Ages’ in our daily lives

‘The “Middle Ages” in our daily lives’ discusses some of the legacies of this period: universities, the printed book, and song. The 12th century saw increased specialization in centres of learning under the auspices of emperors, kings, and popes. Universities were first created in Bologna and Paris, and offered the highest training in medicine, church law, and civil law. It trained those who went on to become the highest state officials and prelates of the church. The culture of young adulthood fostered in universities, and the possibilities for social mobility they afforded, is still seen today. The development of the printed book and the combination of poetry and music in song is also considered.

5. Exchange, environments, and resources

‘Exchange, environments, and resources’ considers natural resources and their uses within an economic system of production and exchange. Food and raw materials from arable and pasture sustained the population at most times, but also formed the basis for manufacture and exchange, and was supplemented by trade in luxuries. Natural resources were closely controlled by landlords. After the collapse of demand for food following the catastrophic Black Death, landlords chose to move away from arable and to exploit other resources: fishing, mining, hemp growing. Woodland provided materials for building, thatching, fencing, basket-making, and food as well as spaces for leisure and entertainment. The roles of water and waterways in the economy are also discussed.

6. The ‘Middle Ages’ of ‘others’

‘The “Middle Ages” of “others”’ considers the people outside the Christian faith—Muslims, pagans, and Jews—to be found at the borders of Europe as well as within its midst. Christian teaching offered a message of hope through redemption, a path to salvation. Those outside the Christian body were destined to live in sin, existing as a menace to themselves and to others. The relationship between Jews and Christians is old and highly complex. Despite the close connections between their faiths through Hebrew texts, Jews were ostracized by Christians throughout this period. They faced forced conversion to Christianity, expulsion, or death.

4. Kingship, lordship, and government

‘Kingship, lordship, and government’ describes the development of ruling concepts and practices. Sacred kingship was born of a pact between dynastic rulers and the church. Rulers were expected to preserve Christian identity, protect the church, and promote justice and peace. Men who held public offices were often rewarded with entitlement to tax income from land. The system of lords, fiefs, and fealty formed the basis upon which long-term reorganization of land, wealth, and power took place. As kingdoms became larger, the burden of military defence and domestic administration became more onerous, and demanded central organization and record keeping, resulting in the development of parliaments.

1. The ‘Middle’ Ages?

The term ‘Media aetas’ or ‘Middle age’ was first used by the poet Petrarch (1304–74), and later by intellectuals who wished to emphasize their own achievements agains a background of that ‘darker age’. In fact, the period from 500 to 1500 saw many and diverse transformations of late antique institutions. The Germanic tribes of the Ostragoths, Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths transformed the Roman Empire through often violent interactions; the Mediterranean Empire was transformed by the spread of Islam in the 7th century; and the 12th and 13th centuries saw a remarkable consolidation of political units and increased European integration. The famine of 1314–17 and the Black Death (1347–52) resulted in a loss of half the population and the remaking of the European economy and the next century saw the effect of the Ottoman challenge as well as the beginnings of exploration in Africa and the Americas.

3. The big idea

‘The big idea: Christian salvation’ shows how an elite of religious leaders shaped European life and extended the reach of Christianity further north. The monastic tradition—Benedictine and Cistercian monastic orders—and its effect on local communities are described. In the 11th century, the Christian centre of the popes in Rome promoted a vision of church hierarchy and discipline, and of freedom from secular powers. After c.1200, Christian beliefs and practices were disseminated widely to Europeans in some 90,000 parishes. The parish church was an important part of family and community life.

Introduction

The ‘Introduction’ presents the period called the Middle Ages as the story of Europe between c.500–1500. Considering it as a single ‘age’ is misleading as it was a period of constant transformation. European lives were shaped through diverse human exchanges and interactions: conquest, conversion, imitation, legislation, and persuasion. There was the legacy of the Roman Empire with its city life, its Christian intellectual heritage, its trade, and its principles of election to public office. There was also the growing influence of the values and capacities of the Germanic, kin-based societies—the barbarians—and the spread of Islam in Mediterranean countries from the 7th century.

2. People and their life-styles

‘People and their life styles’ explores the routines of family and community life in rural settlements and urban centres, in private, and in public. It shows that the people of the ‘Middle Ages’ were not so different from us. Social status and gender were highly consequential. Some activities were associated with kinship, others with the search for protection. People sometimes joined others in their efforts—in a trade guild or a religious fraternity—but they also sought out patronage and guidance, from individuals who were stronger, richer, or more expert than themselves. The habit of association was strong in the European tradition.