The diversity of ancient woodlands in Austria: Historical developments and contemporary social importance

Austrian landscapes range from plains at approximately 100 metres above sea-level to the Alps with peaks at almost 4,000 m. With a share of 47% the forest surface is an important element.One can assume that forests have been used intensively in the course of time and have been impacted by an increasing industry and population, but also by climate change. In some areas the utilization caused the modification of forest stands in particular with regard to the density, composition of tree species and age structure and reduced the extent of the forest area. However, despite these long-term interventions in the forest ecosystem the forests have never been cleared totally and about 30% of the territory remained wooded even in times of heavy exploitation. This is the reason why the share of natural forests is still relatively high. Today, some of these forests now form important assets of the Austrian network of protected forest areas. In this study I want to highlight the socioeconomic and ecological factors in the past which were responsible for this development. It will be illustrated by two case studies from different geographical regions. This examination can contribute to improving the knowledge base for decision making at the internodes of energy, biodiversity and forest policy as well as in forest resource management.

The ancient woodland concept as a practical conservation tool: the Turkish experience

Why ancient woodlands and wood species restoration and rehabilitation is necessary? In Turkey there are over 500 taxa of trees and shrubs, however only a few of them play a vital role both naturally and culturally. The technical term here is ‘intergenerational equity’, or in plainer language, not messing things up for our children and grandchildren. In ancient woodland restoration and rehabilitation approach in Turkey, there is no lack of knowledge to implement suitable strategies, however what is more often lacking is an understanding of the overall landscape and the factors that determine whether different land-uses are mutually reinforcing or in conflict. These applications need to accommodate new perspectives and ideas to put ancient woods back into the natural and cultural landscapes. The experience gained indicates that such implementations require supportive local and national policy frameworks and a strong constituency of local-level support. As a country with already significant areas of a highly degraded nature, but also containing diverse natural and cultural landscapes, Turkey should apply suitable techniques to bring these ancient woods back into their original landscapes in order to sustain its cultural and natural heritage. Ascertaining, and then maintaining, the condition of ancient woodland in Turkey like in UK will be a major challenge for the future. Turkey contains ancient cultural landscapes with distinctive ancient wood and ancient woodlands. They are strongly influenced by human activity reaching back far into history. This is very obvious in Anatolia, a region where eastern and western civilizations meet. The region has also been recognized by eastern and western civilizations nearly as a ‘tree paradise’ with its diverse tree species adapted to different climatic and geomorphological conditions. In this context, it has been aimed to; (1) emphasize the interaction between cultural features and diverse forest landscapes with ancient woodlands, (2) introduce the understanding of ancient woodland concept in Turkey, (3) determine the typical prominent ancient woodland taxa, (4) represent some techniques in order to restore degraded ancient woodland ecosystems in Turkey and (5) seek opportunities for the planning of undisturbed ancient landscapes as a cultural heritage. Additionally, the importance of developing strategies in order to prevent the loss of ancient woodlands was tried to be illustrated by two case studies on Common yew (Taxus baccata L.) and Common boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.), which have been continuosly present in Anatolia since thousands of years, became an important component of cultural landscapes, however strongly influenced by human activity resulting with the degardation and loss of their habitats.

Tanneries and Treescapes: the Influence of the Tanning Industry on Woodland Management

The relationship between supply and demand for wood, timber and bark in different markets, geographical areas, and times is complex, but there are common themes. These relationships have influenced the form, structure and management of woodlands; and their legacies can be seen today. Using examples from the UK and the USA, these common themes are considered and some complexities arising from responses to local economic conditions highlighted. Bark is sometimes described as a waste by-product of other wood and timber industries. However, it is clear that with the high economic value of the tanning industry as a whole, and the central role of leather goods in society for centuries, the impact on woodlands to ensure a ready supply of tree-bark for tanning varied but could be immense.

Using pollen data and models to asses landscape structure and the role of grazers in pre-agricultural Denmark

Pollen records can provide information on past landscape structure, but the interpretation is not straightforward, as plants differ in their pollen production and -dispersal properties. Especially open areas are generally under-represented in pollen diagrams. However, in recent years new models have been developed, which take these factors into account and allow us to correct for them, for example by simulating pollen sedimentation in hypothetical landscapes.In this study, simulated landscapes were created based on landscapes without and with different levels of grazing impact. Pollen deposition in these landscapes was simulated using a model of pollen representation, dispersal and deposition, and the resulting pollen spectra were statistically compared to existing pollen records from Denmark from the Atlantic period (ca. 6800-3900 BC).The analysis showed that many of the pollen diagrams from eastern Denmark were most similar to the scenarios based on a rather closed forest landscape with some wetland areas, whereas for many diagrams in western Denmark, the pollen diagrams are compatible with a landscape which was more open. This openness was possibly due to a larger impact from grazing animals, which had a higher diversity in western than in eastern Denmark, but other factors, especially soil types and the frequency of fire disturbance, may also have played a role, as these also differ between eastern and western Denmark. Certain aspects of the pollen signal, for example the large proportion of Hazel, were not well explained by any scenarios, and require further study.