“Visible” and “Invisible” Victims in the Criminal Justice System

This chapter outlines the “conflict” and “peace-keeping” victim-oriented justice paradigms. The latter empowers the victims of crime, putting them at the center of an encounter and using interindividual mediation or collective circles to address conflict resolution. Two models are critically discussed in the conflict victim-oriented justice paradigm. The European continental “visible victim” model structures the role of the victim as a full-fledged processual party together with the public prosecutor and offender. In this model, the victim has the same rights and powers of the defendant. The “invisible victim” common law model views the victim as a trial witness, participating, for example, through a victim impact statement (in the United States) or victim personal statement (in the United Kingdom) at the sentencing stage. The visible victim conflict paradigm model enhances a victim's role and involvement in the criminal justice system, offering a solution to existing controversial and critical common law system issues.

The Victimization of Transgender Individuals

The victimization of transgender individuals is not always present in reported crime statistics. The victimizations experienced by this population are often invisible and suffered in isolation. There are many reasons why transgender people do not report their victimization, either to family members and friends or to the various institutions of society such as the police, the physical and/or mental health community, or to other social services providers. The authors explore what is currently known about the extent and nature of the victimization of transgender individuals. They explore the research associated with the role race/ethnicity plays in transgender victimizations, the nuances of victimizations that occur within intimate relationships, the response of the criminal justice system, and the impact of victimization on the transgender community. Possible solutions to the problems identified in the chapter are addressed, not the least of which is to dispel many of the myths associated with transgender individuals.

Police Officers

Police officers are exposed to many dangers on the job. Despite this, society may not intuitively consider officers to be victims. Research indicates officers experience various types of victimization on the job, and these victimizations can have direct and indirect physical, mental, and economic impacts on the officer. As a result of violent and nonviolent victimizations in the line of duty, there are negative consequences on officers' wellbeing. Despite this victimhood, police stories are not often headlined in the media, placed on political agendas, or discussed in local communities. Due to the lack of inclusion on these platforms, police officers are invisible victims. This chapter discusses how officers can be considered invisible victims and examines factors that address why society and officers themselves may not equate their experiences to victimization.

Violence Against Healthcare Workers

The focus of this chapter is violence against healthcare workers. Issues surrounding inconsistent definitions, various data collection strategies, and concerns of underreporting will be discussed. The prevalence of violence in regard to locations, perpetrators, and types of violence, as well as risk factors for violent behaviors will be identified. An examination of the impact of violence in this setting and current responses or strategies to address and prevent such violence concludes the chapter.

An Exploration of Correctional Officer Victimization

The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the often-overlooked victimization experienced by correctional staff, specifically corrections officers. Corrections officers are particularly vulnerable to on-the-job victimization as they interact daily with potentially dangerous offenders in often crowded conditions. This chapter examines the types of victimization experienced by corrections officers, the personal characteristics of those victimized, the effect of prison context on correctional officer victimization, and the toll of victimization on COs. Lastly, it provides several policy implications to promote correctional officer safety.

The Victimization and Disparate Treatment of Racial and Ethnic Minorities

This chapter focuses on the victimization of racial and ethnic minorities and the disparate treatment they face within the criminal justice system. Factors that contribute to these issues, such as hate crimes, intersectionality, implicit bias, and the school-to-prison pipeline, will be discussed. The ways in which the media and society at large respond to these matters will be identified. An exploration of how victimization of racial and ethnic minorities differs around the world concludes the chapter.

A Call for Service

Policing is often understood as a dangerous occupation. Subsequently, much research has examined police officer victimization. Scholarship is relatively scant, however, when focused on police dispatcher victimization. This gap in empirical discourse is concerning as these individuals serve an integral function for police and other emergency responders. Likewise, the actions taken by dispatchers impact the needs of citizens (e.g., crime victims, missing persons, etc.) and the actions taken by emergency services. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is focused on illustrating what is known about dispatcher victimization and how these occurrences impact these public servants both professionally and personally. Also discussed in the text are areas that need to be further explored by researchers and practitioners.

Environmental Crimes and Green Victimization

The field of criminology continues to give little attention to the behaviors and crimes that adversely impact the environment although decades of research has highlighted these crimes result in greater social harms, losses, and deaths compared to traditional street crimes. Moreover, these crimes are met with little consequences despite several laws and regulations charged with protecting the environment and public welfare. As a result, residents of minority and poor communities are faced with social, racial, and economic inequalities. This draws attention to the green victimization of marginalized groups and underrepresented populations worldwide. In the United States, these groups include Native Americans, low-income white communities, and prisoners. On a global scale, examples include the Amungme tribe, those who work and live near tanneries in Bangladesh, and Indigenous environmental activists. The chapter seeks to identify and raise awareness of invisible victims of environmental crimes.

Educator Experiences as Victims of School Violence

Educator experiences with violence and aggression have traditionally been overlooked. However, growing research has found these professionals are at risk of frequent victimization in the workplace. This chapter synthesizes literature from the past two decades to provide readers an overview of violence against educators, including prevalence and types of aggression, school climate, demographic, and other precipitating factors, as well as common outcomes. Since these aggressive incidents often do not involve the criminal justice system, the potential applicability of restorative justice practices is discussed. An overview of a new APA task force to study into this phenomenon will be provided, along with a discussion of the perceived impacts of COVID-19 on teacher safety. Theory, research, practice, and policy implications for further understanding teacher experiences, reducing risk of aggression, and ensuring safe school environments are outlined.

Where Are the Male Victims of Human Trafficking?

Although male trafficking constitutes a considerable part of the human trafficking flow, men are rarely identified as victims. Victims of labor-related trafficking, mainly men, are being overlooked. The same happens with the marginal but not negligible percentage of male victims of sexual exploitation. Identification is crucial to promptly assist, support, and protect victims of trafficking. The overall objective of this chapter is to identify the causes and consequences of the invisibility of male victims of human trafficking. It aims to show the association of human trafficking with female non-citizens being trafficked for prostitution, combined with a securitarian approach to migration control, interferes with efforts to identify and protect all victims of human trafficking. As a result, male victims of human trafficking are prevented from accessing justice, thus rendering the transposition and implementation of the Palermo Protocol and the Anti-Trafficking Directive contradictory and ineffective.