6. Norths

‘Norths’ distinguishes between the real northern Canada and its imagined north. The frozen north is a symbol of Canada that appears in songs, art, and literature. The actual north is rich in mineral resources, creating phenomena like the Klondike gold rush of the late 19th century. Other regions are rich in oil and natural gas. Fifty per cent of Canada is permafrost, making its landscape particularly vulnerable to climate change. This intensifies old questions about sovereignty, with the world’s Arctic powers engaged in a new gold rush. With shrinking glaciers appearing in both headlines and literature, the landscapes of the real and the imagined north are changing.

1. Beginnings

‘Beginnings’ traces Canada’s history of colonization by the French and then the British. During the establishment of New France, disease and death cut a swathe through the Indigenous population. After a final short battle, Britain’s victory over the French in the Seven Years War led to further remaking of the land by Great Britain and the formation of a Confederation, which is still contentious. Despite the risks of emigration and the challenges of working the land, Canada’s population swelled with thousands of settlers from France and the Anglo-Celtic diaspora, and then from other parts of the world.

Conclusion

The Conclusion looks at the reading material provided to new Canadian citizens from the Syrian diaspora and elsewhere. These guides leave out the struggle for labour rights but cover Canada’s military history, residential schools, Quebec nationalism, gay and lesbian rights, and women’s rights—which, despite Canada’s reputation for tolerance, were as hard-won there as elsewhere. Peacekeeping, Arctic sovereignty, and the world’s largest undefended border also appear in the guides. The pluralism of the chapter titles in this VSI expresses the belief that there is nothing singular about Canada; it remains geographically large, historically complicated, and made up of people from all over the world.

4. Rights

‘Rights’ looks at the issues Canadians fought for in the 20th-century courts and sometimes in the streets. Francophone rights were met by French-language schools, and women mounted protests in Parliament to gain reproductive rights. Canada was the fourth country to legalize same-sex marriage. Attempts by First Nations people to have their hunting and fishing rights recognized met with mixed results and restrictions on the resources they were trying to access. Fundamental labour rights are protected by charters. While Canada is proud of its record on rights, these rights are the result of years of direct action and legal challenges and owe as much to individuals as to legislation.

Introduction

As the Introduction explains, Canada is a unique place. It is extremely large, sparsely populated, and home to many different cultural identities. The Introduction looks at Canada’s recent move to provide homes to refugees from Syria and around the world. Canada’s history is one of colonization, with settlements displacing indigenous groups. The name ‘Canada’ derives from an Iroquoian word for ‘village’ or ‘settlement’. In the early 20th century, thousands of immigrants arrived in Canada. Today, Syrian refugees and other immigrants of different kinds will shape Canada’s future, furthering its reputation for tolerance and multiculturalism and adding to its existing diversity.

5. Borders

The border between America and Canada is both physical and psychological. ‘Borders’ looks at the challenges of being a middle power next to an imperial power, described by Pierre Trudeau as a ‘sleeping elephant’. After a short war in 1812, the relationship has been one of cooperation. Crises like the Cold War and 9/11 required a diplomatic approach from Canada. Only rarely—as in the Suez Crisis of 1956—did Canada play a role on the global diplomatic stage. While peacekeeping is important to Canada’s establishment as a world power, some involvement with the USA in war and considerable involvement in trade is seen as vital.

3. Nationalisms

In theory, Canada is one nation. ‘Nationalisms’ shows that the reality is more complex. English Canada, Quebec, and First Nations groups have distinct identities, as does Newfoundland. The First World War divided English Canada and Quebec over conscription, and the Second World War also tested Canada’s national fault lines. The Quiet Revolutions made the 1960s and 1970s a period of excitement, cultural experimentation, and even violence, which was quashed by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Legally, Quebec is a province but after referendums in the 1980s and 1990s, its struggle for independence was successful in everything but name.

2. Dispossessions

‘Dispossessions’ covers the exploitation of Indigenous Canadians who saw the treaties they signed as land-sharing agreements while the European settlers interpreted them as selling the land outright. Groups with no treaties, like the European-Indigenous Metis, were particularly vulnerable. Residential schools for Indigenous children provided opportunities, but also played a part in cultural genocide. The Indian Act, an attempt to solve the problem on the government’s terms, dictated who could identify as Indian. Some communities and individuals have succeeded in reclaiming their land, rights, and histories, but life is still challenging for many Indigenous or First Nations people.