Diamond Trafficking

This chapter addresses diamond trafficking in four sections: the nature and extent of the harm; the structure of diamond trafficking (considered in terms of source, transit and demand); regulation and control; and finally a discussion about diamond trafficking as illicit business enterprise. The controversy around conflict diamonds is reviewed, along with the routines of mining, trafficking, refining and the marketplace. The changing nature of the international diamond market is noted, and the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme is discussed along with its critics. In the final section, we consider the symbolic nature of diamonds and the ideological work that has gone into creating this symbolism. Reports from brokers and traffickers in the diamond market are referred to in support of the proposition that diamond trafficking is framed by participants as ‘just business’.

Antiquities Trafficking

This chapter addresses antiquities trafficking in four sections: the nature and extent of the harm; the structure of antiquities trafficking (considered in terms of source, transit and demand); regulation and control; and finally a discussion about antiquities trafficking as business enterprise. The historical and economic harm of antiquities trafficking is explained, and the market is examined as grey, in that looted objects are fed into legitimate supply chains in the public marketplace. The structure and main players in the antiquities market are discussed, including looters, dealers, collectors, auction houses and museums. Current systems of regulation include international treaties, domestic property and criminal laws, self-regulatory codes, and campaigns that focus on public awareness. The final section of the chapter details the techniques of neutralisation and processes of denial that characterise the way ‘business talk’ permeates the antiquities market, providing a narrative structure of justification and excuse of harmful behaviour that focuses on the benefits of international trade, private property ownership, and entrepreneurial dealing.

Arms Trafficking

This chapter addresses arms trafficking in four sections: the nature and extent of the harm; the structure of arms trafficking (considered in terms of source, transit and demand); regulation and control; and finally a discussion about arms trafficking as business enterprise. The various routines and usual patterns of arms trafficking are reviewed, including vulnerable stockpiles, markets in military weapons, state involvement, and large-scale trafficking, as well as consumer markets and small-time smuggling. The structure of arms trafficking networks is considered, looking at facilitators and brokers as well as the central players such as notorious high-level traffickers like Viktor Bout. Regulation and prosecution is shown to be challenging, with various factors inherent to this form of trafficking adding up to severe difficulties for those who aim to control the problem. As with other chapters, the final section works through the business aspects of arms trafficking, integrating emotional and cultural considerations into the cold economics of the crime, to give us a rounded view of the supply and demand dynamics in markets for illegal weapons.

Conclusion: A Social Theory of Transnational Criminal Markets

This chapter begins by recounting common themes across global trafficking markets, and considering the evidence for links and overlaps between them, using three parameters: geographical; transit; and exchange of one trafficked commodity for another. Then we revisit the spectrum of enterprise concept that has been a central thread of analysis of each trafficking market throughout the book. Trafficking is discussed as a form of illicit commodification, as objects and people are transformed into things that can be bought and sold. Commodification is a central feature of contemporary market society, and it encourages an objectification of the things and people being trafficked, which come to be seen merely as items that can be exploited by business-minded entrepreneurs willing to break the law. Through these processes of commodification and exploitation, trafficking is seen as a systematic feature of globalised neoliberal economy and society. The illegal part of the spectrum of enterprise turns a mirror on modern society and economy that highlights some of the worst features of capitalist life: including a business orientation that is systematically indifferent to harmful effects.