4. Beyond the dominant orthodoxies

Following the collapse of the Soviet bloc, countries around the world struggled to implement their versions of social democracy. ‘Beyond the dominant orthodoxies’ looks at recent developments in China (successful, but too business-oriented and inflexible to be the future of socialism), the UK (weakened by the ‘third way’ of the late 1990s and lack of engagement with political parties), and other European countries (threatened by lack of support for social democratic parties and the rise of the far right). None of the new movements in Spain, Greece, Latin America, or the UK was entirely successful, but many succeeded in embedding elements of socialism in their countries’ politics.

1. Socialist traditions

‘Socialist traditions’ looks at the early forms of socialism that arose in reaction to the poverty and inequality caused by the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Three key socialist theories—utopianism, anarchism, and Marxism—are explored. The utopians pioneered the idea of communes, anarchists and collectivists encouraged distrust in authority and hierarchy, and Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels introduced their concept of socialism as a result of the conflicts inherent in the capitalist system. Leninism in Russia was not a fully-fledged philosophical or political movement, but it was shaped by a socialist belief in the workers’ right to control their fate.

2. Cuban communism and Swedish social democracy

After the split with communism, social democratic parties struggled with self-definition. ‘Cuban communism and Swedish social democracy’ focuses on two case studies, the golden age of the Swedish Social Democratic Party and the communist regime in Cuba under Fidel Castro. Both prioritized sustainable economic success as a markerof progress and demonstrated that greater opportunities for women and people from different ethnic backgrounds would have a positive effect on the economy. Both governments were constructed and supported in markedly different ways. Neither were complete successes but were important examples of how the implementation of socialist ideologies—equality, cooperation, and solidarity—might look in practice.

5. Socialism today and tomorrow

‘Socialism today and tomorrow’ looks at tactics used to discredit socialism, throughout history and today. Is socialism still relevant? Do technological developments like automation threaten its future? What lessons should have been learned? Cooperation and social solidarity may be more important now than ever. Socialists still need to develop viable economic strategies and work towards genuinely democratic governments. Despite the difficulties in practice, 21st-century socialism should be internationalist. Modern socialists need to resist looking back at a ‘golden age’ of socialism but will still be able to learn positive lessons from the movements and utopias of the past.

3. New Lefts—enrichment and fragmentation

In the second half of the twentieth century, new movements grew up that were not necessarily socialist but inspired by new intellectual influences combined with older traditions, such as more humanistic interpretations of Marxism. ‘New Lefts—enrichment and fragmentation’ focuses on two manifestations of the New Left, feminism, and green socialism, both of which questioned the dominant forms and structures of socialist groups. More recent developments include the recognition of intersectionality, which poses other challenges, and uprisings such as the Occupy movement and climate change activism, both of which recognize capitalism as a primary driver of inequality and climate change.

Introduction

What is socialism? The Introduction outlines the beliefs socialists have in common, including their opposition to gaps in wealth and equality and commitment to the creation of an egalitarian society. Socialism, capitalism, and liberalism are products of a post-19th-century age in which people see themselves as having the agency to effect change. Socialism’s detractors focus on its negative manifestations, such as Stalinism. Socialism has been interpreted differently around the world, inspiring distinct types of communism in Russia and China. Cuba has one of the best-known socialist political systems. Smaller socialist experiments include the kibbutz movement and post-colonial Arab and African efforts to combine socialism with existing traditions.