Conclusion

This chapter begins by discussing representations of Keshab Chandra Sen at the time of his death in 1884. It argues that Keshab became symbolic, for British audiences, of the limits imposed by racial and religious difference on the ability of imperialism to bring civilization to colonial subjects. It explores the ways in which Keshab’s colonial subjectivity was limited fundamentally by structures of power immanent in imperialism. It argues that Keshab’s influence in Bengali intellectual history has been underestimated, and explores his connections to figures including Swami Vivekananda, Brahmobandhab Upadhyay and Rabindranath Tagore. The chapter concludes that the universalism Keshab propounded was impossible to realize in an imperial world.

Keshab in the Context of Nineteenth-Century Britain and Bengal

This chapter sets out the key contexts in terms of which Keshab Chandra Sen should be understood. It begins with a discussion of London and Calcutta as global cities and explores scholarship concerning Indians in Britain. It goes on to analyze interconnections between Bengali Hinduism, Nonconformist Christianity, Unitarianism, alternative spiritualities, religious universalism and British policy in India. Keshab’s involvement in the Brahmo Samaj is discussed in detail, as is his relationship with the ideas of Ram Mohan Roy. Keshab’s family history is considered, as is his relationship with the Brahmo leader Debendranath Tagore.

Introduction

This chapter argues that Keshab Chandra Sen’s worldview was shaped by the cultural, intellectual and religious traditions of both India and Britain. It situates the study in the context of current scholarship concerning new imperial history, histories of identity and subjectivity, postcolonial studies and subaltern studies. It sets out the methodological and theoretical framework of the book, with particular reference to discourse analysis, theories of identity and subjectivity, postcolonial theory, liberalism and universalism. It provides a brief biographical introduction to Keshab Chandra Sen and argues that he is a significant and neglected figure in the history of Bengal and the Bengal renaissance.

‘Truth is not European’

This chapter explores the arguments Keshab Chandra Sen presented to British audiences during his visit to Britain in 1870. It argues that Keshab articulated a distinctive version of liberalism, and was able to attain a high degree of visibility in the British public sphere. Keshab’s ideas concerning British rule in India and his observations of Britons in London are considered in detail. The chapter analyses Keshab’s views of global history and his ideas concerning gender, reform and civilization. The chapter goes on to discuss Keshab’s personal experiences of imperial Britain and considers the extent to which he felt ‘at home’ in the imperial metropole.

The Cuch Bihar Crisis and the Search for Universal Religion

This chapter explores the motivations behind and the consequences of the disastrous marriage of Keshab Chandra Sen’s daughter, Suniti Devi, to the Maharajah of Cuch Bihar in 1878. It argues that Keshab sanctioned the marriage because of his commitment to public duty and his conviction that British rule in India was divinely sanctioned. The chapter goes on to explore Keshab’s establishment of the Church of the New Dispensation (Naba Bidhan), with himself as its prophet. The New Dispensation drew on traditions of universalism in Hinduism, Brahmoism and Christianity, and was connected to movements including Transcendentalism and Theosophy. The chapter argues that the New Dispensation was not a project of national transformation, but one of personal spiritual development, which enabled Keshab and his followers to ‘perform’ a vision of universalist philosophy that did not exist in reality.

Tensions and Transitions: 1870–77

This chapter begins by discussing Keshab Chandra Sen’s attempts to replicate British models of liberal social reform in India. It goes on to examine Keshab’s changing attitudes to gender, reform and civilization, as he gradually moved away from the liberalism he had espoused in Britain. It argues that Ramakrishna exerted a considerable influence on Keshab, as he began to embrace aspects of Hindu revivalism and Indian nationalism. It argues that Keshab attempted to undermine the epistemological basis of British imperialism by arguing for the value of ‘madness’ and ‘inspiration’ as modes of thought.

Spectacle, Difference, Fear and Fantasy

The focus of this chapter is representation. The chapter explores the ways in which Keshab Chandra Sen was represented by British audiences, with a particular focus on the British Victorian press. It argues that Keshab was interpreted by most audiences as a powerful advocate for Christianity in India and a symbol of the beneficial effects of British imperialism. The British Unitarians were exceptional in viewing Keshab as a prophet of world-historical significance in his own right. Negative responses to Keshab were structured by Victorian discourses of race, class and gender. The meanings Keshab could carry for British audiences were limited fundamentally by structures of power immanent in imperialism.