What is Reform?

This chapter defines the central terms of the book: What is reform, what are the markers of reform, what characterizes processes of reform, what is Salafi-oriented reform and how is Salafi-oriented reform different from Sufi-oriented reform? The chapter presents doctrinal distinction, symbolic distantiation, social separation and spatial segregation as the major features of Salafi-oriented reform. It introduces major intellectual trends of Salafi-oriented reform, it also introduces the major intellectual exponents of Salafi-oriented reform in Africa and stresses the importance of generational change. The chapter points out that movements of reform are not monolithic organizations but characterized by the existence of traditions of dispute on many different levels. The chapter presents the major trends within Salafi-oriented reform that are informed by different approaches to political strategy, education, militancy and piety. The chapter finally discusses different ways of constructing Muslim societies and concludes that such epistemic constructions usually rely on essentialisations that are often misleading when applied to larger social and historical contexts.

Reform in Context III: Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia

This chapter departs from both preceding as well as following chapters in so far as it does focus on four local contexts, namely Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. These case studies serve to demonstrate the importance of the local context for the emergence of Salafi-oriented movements of reform. A major reason for the failure of Salafi-oriented reform in Chad was the virtual absence of significant middle class groups that would have supported the development of a popular mass movement of reform; in the case of Ethiopia, reasons for the failure of Salafi-oriented reform were the highly fragmented character of Ethiopia’s society and again the absence of significant middle class groups. In Somalia, the success of Salafi-oriented movements of reform and the emergence of jihad-minded groups (al-Shabab) can be explained by the dynamics of the civil war since 1988. The success of Salafi-oriented reform in Sudan was linked with the growth of strong middle class groups in the urban centres as well as the ability of Hasan al-Turabi, the major leader of Salafi-minded reform in Sudan since the 1960s, to provide the “Islamic Movement” in the Sudan with a successful long-term political strategy that led to the take-over of power in 1989.

Reform in Context II: Northern Nigeria (and Niger)

This chapter introduces northern Nigeria as the regional context for the emergence of both Sufi- and Salafi-oriented movements of reform. It shows again that neither movement of reform was monolithic but characterized by multiple splits. The chapter presents Abubakar Gumi as the first major representative of Salafi-minded reform in northern Nigeria and discusses the emergence of the ‘Yan Izala as the first Salafi-oriented movement of reform that also became a popular mass movement. Due to its conservative political positions, the ‘Yan Izala movement was challenged by more radical movements such as the “Islamic Movement” led by Ibrahim al-Zakzaki. Some radical movements eventually advocated jihad as in the case of the Boko Haram movement. Some ‘Yan Izala fractions, representing a second generation of Salafi-minded reformers, came to form the ahl al-sunna movement of reform which played a major role in the implementation of “political shariÝa” in the 2000s. The chapter finally compares the development of Salafi-oriented reform in northern Nigeria with developments in neighbouring Niger and shows that the failure of Salafi-minded reform in Niger was again linked with the different historical and social context.

Reform in Context I: Senegal (and Mali)

This chapter introduces Senegal as a first regional context for the emergence of both Sufi- and Salafi-oriented movements of reform. It shows that neither movement of reform was monolithic but characterized by multiple splits, often linked with family disputes and generational change. The chapter presents Cheikh Touré as the major representative of Salafi-minded reform in Senegal and discusses the different ways in which Sufi movements responded to the challenge of Salafi-oriented reform. The chapter shows that both Sufi- and Salafi-oriented movements of reform tried to take part actively in Senegalese politics and to influence politics. It also explains why Salafi-oriented reform has not managed to become a popular mass movement in Senegal and why Sufi movements managed to consolidate their role as the major political players in Senegal. The chapter finally compares the development of Salafi-oriented reform in Mali with developments in Senegal and shows that the success of Salafi-minded reform in Mali was linked with the different historical and social context. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the civil war in Mali in 2011 and 2012 and the emergence of jihad-minded groups in northern Mali.

Introduction: The Context of Reform

This chapter introduces the general historical and social framework of reform, namely, the dynamics of modernization in colonial and post-colonial times. It also discusses the emergence of African middle class groups which became the social basis for reform movements. Processes of social change were characterized by the development of multiple hybridities and interfaces between different social and religious movements.

Reform in Context V: Zanzibar (and the Comoros)

This chapter introduces Zanzibar as the regional context for the emergence of both Sufi- and Salafi-oriented movements of reform. Zanzibar’s history since the late 19th century was informed by the emergence of an Omani political aristocracy and the development of a reform movement led by religious scholars of the Alawiyya Sufi order as well as reform-minded scholars such as Abdallah Salih al-Farsy. The revolution in Zanzibar in January 1964 not only put an end to Omani rule, it also ended the hegemony of the Alawi religious establishment. In the aftermath of the revolution, Zanzibar’s socialist regime war opposed by Saudi trained Salafi-minded groups, known as “ansar al-sunna”. Until today, Salafi-oriented groups have not managed to become a popular mass movement, yet, have become a voice of opposition. The chapter finally compares the development of Salafi-oriented reform in Zanzibar with the development of Islamic reform in the Comoros. Despite some striking similarities, such as a revolution in 1975, the development of the Comoros was marked by a turn towards “Islam” after a coup d’Etat in 1978. The emergence of a Salafi-oriented movement of reform was linked with its protest against the increasingly corrupt political system of the Comoros in the 1980s and 1990s.

Reform in Context IV: Tanganyika/Tanzania (and Kenya)

This chapter introduces Tanganyika (since 1964 Tanzania) as the regional context for the emergence of both Sufi- and Salafi-oriented movements of reform. It shows that neither movement of reform was monolithic but characterized by multiple splits informed by generational dynamics as well as family disputes. The chapter presents Sufi-oriented movements of reform as the first movements of reform in Tanganyika and explains why Salafi-oriented groups developed so late, although Salafi ideas of reform had already been presented by Shaykh al-Amin b. Ali al-Mazru’i in the 1930s. Salafi-oriented groups in fact developed only as a reaction to efforts of the Tanzanian state to impose religious hegemony through the agency of state controlled Muslim institutions which were regarded as being highly corrupt by Tanzania Muslims. Since the 1980s, Tanzania’s Salafi-oriented Muslims, known under the term “ansar al-sunna” fought against the alleged marginalization of Muslims by the Tanzanian state and against the massive growth of Pentecostal churches. The chapter finally compares the development of Salafi-oriented reform in Tanganyika/Tanzania with developments in Kenya and shows that the development of Salafi-minded reform in Kenya was again linked with the Kenyan political and historical context and characterized by organizational and doctrinal fragmentation. Neither in Tanzania nor in Kenya were Salafi-minded movements of reform able to become popular mass movements.

Conclusion: The Meaning of Islamic Reform

This chapter summarizes the results of the book. In particular, it raises the question what Islamic reform actually means for Muslims in sub-Saharan Africa and it points out both patterns and peculiarities of the development of Islamic reform. It also stresses the importance of the local context to explain the success or failure of Islamic movements of reform and shows that the emergence of Salafi-oriented movements of reform in sub-Saharan Africa was not necessarily linked with movements towards independence (as in North Africa). The development of Salafi-oriented movements of reform was rather linked with the emergence of urban middle class groups that sought support for new forms of piety and that also sought to dissociate themselves from seemingly obsolete practices associated with Sufism. Despite the emergence of Salafi-minded movements of reform, Sufi orders have managed to retain at least some of their former influence by adopting some aspects of Salafi-minded reform programmes.