Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is driven by dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SN) and striatum. Although apoptosis is considered the main neurodegenerative mechanism, other cell death pathways may be involved. In this regard, necroptosis is a regulated form of cell death dependent on receptor interacting protein 3 (RIP3), a protein also implicated in apoptosis and inflammation independently of its pro-necroptotic activity. Here, we explored the role of RIP3 genetic deletion in in vivo and in vitro PD models. Firstly, wild-type (Wt) and RIP3 knockout (RIP3ko) mice were injected intraperitoneally with MPTP (40 mg/kg, i.p.), and sacrificed after either 6 or 30 days. RIP3ko protected from dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the SN of MPTP-injected mice, but this effect was independent of necroptosis. In keeping with this, necrostatin-1s (10 mg/kg/day, i.p.) did not afford full neuroprotection. Moreover, MPTP led to DNA fragmentation, caspase-3 activation, lipid peroxidation and BAX expression in Wt mice, in the absence of caspase-8 cleavage, suggesting intrinsic apoptosis. This was mimicked in primary cortical neuronal cultures exposed to the active MPTP metabolite. RIP3 deficiency in cultured cells and in mouse brain abrogated all phenotypes. Curiously, astrogliosis was increased in the striatum of MPTP-injected Wt mice and further exacerbated in RIP3ko mice. This was accompanied by absence of microgliosis and reposition of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) levels in the striata of MPTP-injected RIP3ko mice when compared to MPTP-injected Wt mice, which in turn showed a massive GDNF decrease. RIP3ko primary mixed glial cultures also presented decreased expression of inflammation-related genes upon inflammatory stimulation. These findings hint at possible undescribed non-necroptotic roles for RIP3 in inflammation and MPTP-driven cell death, which can contribute to PD progression.
Proanthocyanidins exert a neuroprotective effect via ROS/JNK signaling in MPTP‑induced Parkinson's disease models in�vitro and in�vivo
