Estimated number of ophthalmologists worldwide (International Council of Ophthalmology update): will we meet the needs?

Background/aimsTo estimate 2015 global ophthalmologist data and analyse their relationship to income groups, prevalence rates of blindness and visual impairment and gross domestic product (GDP) per capita.MethodsOnline surveys were emailed to presidents/chairpersons of national societies of ophthalmology and Ministry of Health representatives from all 194 countries to capture the number and density (per million population) of ophthalmologists, the number/density performing cataract surgery and refraction, and annual ophthalmologist population growth trends. Correlations between these data and income group, GDP per capita and prevalence rates of blindness and visual impairment were analysed.ResultsIn 2015, there were an estimated 232 866 ophthalmologists in 194 countries. Income was positively associated with ophthalmologist density (a mean 3.7 per million population in low-income countries vs a mean 76.2 in high-income countries). Most countries reported positive growth (94/156; 60.3%). There was a weak, inverse correlation between the prevalence of blindness and the ophthalmologist density. There were weak, positive correlations between the density of ophthalmologists performing cataract surgery and GDP per capita and the prevalence of blindness, as well as between GDP per capita and the density of ophthalmologists doing refractions.ConclusionsAlthough the estimated global ophthalmologist workforce appears to be growing, the appropriate distribution of the eye care workforce and the development of comprehensive eye care delivery systems are needed to ensure that eye care needs are universally met.

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Nanomedicine for the poor: a lost cause or an idea whose time has yet to come?

Nanomedicine ◽

10.2217/nnm-2021-0024 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Vuk Uskoković

Keyword(s):

Low Income ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Lost Cause ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

The Poor ◽

Scientific Innovation ◽

Per Capita ◽

To Come

The most effective COVID-19 vaccines, to date, utilize nanotechnology to deliver immunostimulatory mRNA. However, their high cost equates to low affordability. Total nano-vaccine purchases per capita and their proportion within the total vaccine lots have increased directly with the GDP per capita of countries. While three out of four COVID-19 vaccines procured by wealthy countries by the end of 2020 were nano-vaccines, this amounted to only one in ten for middle-income countries and nil for the low-income countries. Meanwhile, economic gains of saving lives with nano-vaccines in USA translate to large costs in middle-/low-income countries. It is discussed how nanomedicine can contribute to shrinking this gap between rich and poor instead of becoming an exquisite technology for the privileged. Two basic routes are outlined: (1) the use of qualitative contextual analyses to endorse R&D that positively affects the sociocultural climate; (2) challenging the commercial, competitive realities wherein scientific innovation of the day operates.

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Does economic growth reduce childhood stunting? A multicountry analysis of 89 Demographic and Health Surveys in sub-Saharan Africa

BMJ Global Health ◽

10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002042 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 5 (1) ◽

pp. e002042 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Sanni Yaya ◽

Olalekan A Uthman ◽

Michael Kunnuji ◽

Kannan Navaneetham ◽

Joshua O Akinyemi ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Economic Growth ◽

Low Income ◽

Random Effect ◽

Sub Saharan Africa ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Demographic And Health Surveys ◽

Per Capita ◽

Sub Saharan ◽

Childhood Stunting

BackgroundThere is mixed evidence and lack of consensus on the impact of economic development on stunting, and likewise there is a dearth of empirical studies on this relationship in the case of sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, this paper examines whether economic growth is associated with childhood stunting in low-income and middle-income sub-Saharan African countries.MethodsWe analysed data from 89 Demographic and Health Surveys conducted between 1987 and 2016 available as of October 2018 using multivariable multilevel logistic regression models to show the association between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and stunting. We adjusted the models for child’s age, survey year, child’s sex, birth order and country random effect, and presented adjusted and unadjusted ORs.ResultsWe included data from 490 526 children. We found that the prevalence of stunting decreased with increasing GDP per capita (correlation coefficient=−0.606, p<0.0001). In the unadjusted model for full sample, for every US$1000 increase in GDP per capita, the odds of stunting decreased by 23% (OR=0.77, 95% CI 0.76 to 0.78). The magnitude of the association between GDP per capita and stunting was stronger among children in the richest quintile. After adjustment was made, the association was not significant among children from the poorest quintile. However, the magnitude of the association was more pronounced among children from low-income countries, such that, in the model adjusted for child’s age, survey year, child’s sex, birth order and country random effect, the association between GDP per capita and stunting remained statistically significant; for every US$1000 increase in GDP per capita, the odds of stunting decreased by 12% (OR=0.88, 95% CI 0.87 to 0.90).ConclusionThere was no significant association between economic growth and child nutritional status. The prevalence of stunting decreased with increasing GDP per capita. This was more pronounced among children from the richest quintile. The magnitude of the association was higher among children from low-income countries, suggesting that households in the poorest quintile were typically the least likely to benefit from economic gains. The findings could serve as a building block needed to modify current policy as per child nutrition-related programmes in Africa.

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Distribution of under-5 deaths in the neonatal, postneonatal, and childhood periods: a multicountry analysis in 64 low- and middle-income countries

International Journal for Equity in Health ◽

10.1186/s12939-021-01449-8 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 20 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Zhihui Li ◽

Omar Karlsson ◽

Rockli Kim ◽

S. V. Subramanian

Keyword(s):

Low Income ◽

Age Groups ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Demographic And Health Surveys ◽

Relative Distribution ◽

Middle Income ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Per Capita ◽

Low And Middle Income

Abstract Background As under-5 mortality rates declined all over the world, the relative distribution of under-5 deaths during different periods of life changed. To provide information for policymakers to plan for multi-layer health strategies targeting child health, it is essential to quantify the distribution of under-5 deaths by age groups. Methods Using 245 Demographic and Health Surveys from 64 low- and middle-income countries conducted between 1986 and 2018, we compiled a database of 2,437,718 children under-5 years old with 173,493 deaths. We examined the share of deaths that occurred in the neonatal (< 1 month), postneonatal (1 month to 1 year old), and childhood (1 to 5 years old) periods to the total number of under-5 deaths at both aggregate- and country-level. We estimated the annual change in share of deaths to track the changes over time. We also assessed the association between share of deaths and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. Results Neonatal deaths accounted for 53.1% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 52.7, 53.4) of the total under-5 deaths. The neonatal share of deaths was lower in low-income countries at 44.0% (43.5, 44.5), and higher in lower-middle-income and upper-middle income countries at 57.2% (56.8, 57.6) and 54.7% (53.8, 55.5) respectively. There was substantial heterogeneity in share of deaths across countries; for example, the share of neonatal to total under-5 deaths ranged from 20.9% (14.1, 27.6) in Eswatini to 82.8% (73.0, 92.6) in Dominican Republic. The shares of deaths in all three periods were significantly associated with GDP per capita, but in different directions—as GDP per capita increased by 10%, the neonatal share of deaths would significantly increase by 0.78 percentage points [PPs] (0.43, 1.13), and the postneonatal and childhood shares of deaths would significantly decrease by 0.29 PPs (0.04, 0.54) and 0.49 PPs (0.24, 0.74) respectively. Conclusions Along with the countries’ economic development, an increasing proportion of under-5 deaths occurs in the neonatal period, suggesting a need for multi-layer health strategies with potentially heavier investment in newborn health.

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On the structure of the present-day convergence

Campus-Wide Information Systems ◽

10.1108/cwis-11-2013-0064 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 31 (2/3) ◽

pp. 139-152 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

Andrey Korotayev ◽

Julia Zinkina

Keyword(s):

Global Convergence ◽

Low Income ◽

High Income ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Unconditional Convergence ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Middle Income ◽

Content Type ◽

Middle Income Countries ◽

Per Capita

Purpose – A substantial number of researchers have investigated the global economic dynamics of this time to disprove unconditional convergence and refute its very idea, stating the phenomenon of conditional convergence instead. However, most respective papers limit their investigation period with the early or mid-2000s. In the authors’ opinion, some of the global trends which revealed themselves particularly clearly in the second half of the 2000s call for a revision of the convergence issue. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – Several methodologies for measuring the global convergence/divergence trends exist in the economic literature. This paper seeks to contribute to the existing literature on unconditional β-convergence of the per capita incomes at the global level. Findings – In the recent years, the gap between high-income and middle-income countries is decreasing especially rapidly. The gap between high-income and low-income countries, meanwhile, is decreasing at a much slower pace. At the same time, the gap between middle-income and low-income countries is actually widening. Indeed, in the early 1980s GDP per capita in the low-income countries was on average three times lower than in the middle-income countries, and this gap was totally overshadowed by the more than ten-time abyss between the middle-income and the high-income countries. Now, however, the GDP per capita in low-income countries lags behind the middle-income ones by more than five times, which is largely the same as the gap (rapidly contracting in the recent years) between the high-income and the middle-income countries. This clearly suggests that the configuration of the world system has experienced a very significant transformation in the recent 30 years. Research limitations/implications – The research concentrates upon the dynamics of the gap in per capita income between the high-income, the middle-income, and the low-income countries. Originality/value – This paper's originality/value lies in drawing attention to the specific changes in the structure of global convergence/divergence patterns and their implications for the low-income countries.

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Does urban concentration matter for changes in country economic performance?

Urban Studies ◽

10.1177/0042098021998927 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 004209802199892

Author(s):

Roberto Ganau ◽

Andrés Rodríguez-Pose

Keyword(s):

Low Income ◽

Labour Productivity ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Data Set ◽

Country Level ◽

Labour Productivity Growth ◽

Level Data ◽

Per Capita ◽

Urban Concentration

This paper uses a novel, globally harmonised city-level data set – with cities defined at the Functional Urban Area (FUA) level – to revisit the link between urban concentration and country-level economic dynamics. The empirical analysis, involving 108 low- and high-income countries, examines how differences in urban concentration impinge on changes in employment, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita and labour productivity at country level over the period 2000–2016. The results indicate that urban concentration reduces employment growth but increases GDP per capita and labour productivity growth. The returns of urban concentration are higher for high- than for low-income countries and are mainly driven by the ‘core’ of FUAs, rather than by suburban areas.

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The impact of a country’s level of development on the nexus between bank lending structure and economic growth

Voprosy Ekonomiki ◽

10.32609/0042-8736-2021-10-51-70 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 51-70

Author(s):

I. N. Gurov ◽

E. Y. Kulikova

Keyword(s):

Economic Growth ◽

Low Income ◽

Banking Sector ◽

Negative Impact ◽

Positive Impact ◽

Bank Lending ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Gdp Per Capita ◽

Per Capita ◽

The Impact

The purpose of this paper is to determine how the impact of the bank lending structure on economic growth differs depending on the level of a country’s development. The article provides suggestions on how much one can rely on the leading growth of corporate and consumer bank lending in order to promote economic growth. The study is based on the panel data for 211 countries for the period 1990—2019 using methods of qualitative and quantitative analysis. The authors have identified three groups of the countries where the impact of the bank lending structure on economic growth is different. In the least developed and low-income countries, the leading growth of both consumer and corporate lending has a positive impact on economic growth. As GDP per capita reaches 4,700—7,000 constant 2010 U.S. dollars, the outstripping growth of consumer lending begins to negatively affect economic growth, while corporate lending continues to have a positive impact. As GDP per capita continues to increase, corporate lending also begins to negatively affect economic growth. The GDP per capita threshold level, after which the negative impact of corporate lending begins, ranges from 6,000 to 42,000 constant 2010 U.S. dollars, some estimates allow us to specify these limits from 13,000 to 22,000 constant 2010 U.S. dollars. Such broad boundaries are determined by the fact that the role of the banking sector in investments financing may differ because of the financial sector model and the national economy structure. However, our results show that in the most developed and high-income countries, faster growth in corporate lending will not contribute to economic growth. The study also finds that the share of mortgage loans in GDP has a positive but insignificant effect on economic growth in all groups of the countries.

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Availability of ENT Surgical Procedures and Medication in Low-Income Nation Hospitals: Cause for Concern in Zambia

BioMed Research International ◽

10.1155/2020/1980123 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 2020 ◽

pp. 1-8

Author(s):

Lufunda Lukama ◽

Chester Kalinda ◽

Warren Kuhn ◽

Colleen Aldous

Keyword(s):

Surgical Procedures ◽

Low Income ◽

Care Delivery ◽

National Policy ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Health Concern ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Essential Drugs ◽

High Prevalence

Background. Ear, nose, and throat (ENT) diseases are an oft overlooked global health concern. Despite their high prevalence and associated morbidity and mortality, ENT diseases have remained neglected in health care delivery. In Zambia and many other low-income countries, ENT services are characterized by poor funding, unavailable surgical procedures, and erratic supply of essential drugs. Objective. To investigate ENT service provision in Zambia with regard to availability of surgical procedures and supply of essential drugs. Methods. A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted using a piloted structured questionnaire between 17 January 2017 and 2 January 2018. Included in the study were the 109 hospitals registered with the Ministry of Health (MoH) across the 10 provinces of Zambia. Results. Of the participating hospitals, only 5.9% (n=1) and 40% (n=2) of Second-Level Hospitals (SLH) and Third-Level Hospitals (TLH), respectively, carried out tympanoplasty, myringotomy, and grommet insertion (M+G). Frontal trephination and external ethmoidectomy were offered in 11.7% (n=2) and 40% (n=2) of SLH and TLH, respectively. While tracheostomy (39.3%, n=24), tonsillectomy (27.9%, n=17), and adenoidectomy (27.9%, n=17) were the most widely performed head and neck procedures, laryngectomy was carried out by 1 hospital. Between 14.8% (n=9) and 36.1% (n=22) of hospitals lacked antibiotic and/or antiseptic ear drops. Despite 96.7% (n=59) of the respondents acknowledging ENT as an important branch of clinical practice, only 15.3% (n=4) of the hospitals had a budget for ENT. Also, 6.6% (n=4) of the respondents thought the discipline of ENT had received enough attention. Conclusion. ENT service delivery in Zambia is limited with regard to performed surgical procedures and availability of essential drugs, necessitating urgent intervention. The findings from this study may be used to direct national policy on the improvement of provision of ENT services in Zambia.

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Out-of-Pocket Expenditures on Health: A Global Stocktake

The World Bank Research Observer ◽

10.1093/wbro/lkz009 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 35 (2) ◽

pp. 123-157 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Adam Wagstaff ◽

Patrick Eozenou ◽

Marc Smitz

Keyword(s):

Health System ◽

Low Income ◽

Poverty Line ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Two Measures ◽

Per Capita ◽

Summary Measures ◽

The Rich ◽

Catastrophic Expenditures ◽

Highly Correlated

Abstract This paper provides an overview of research on out-of-pocket health expenditures by reviewing the various summary measures and the results of multi-country studies using these measures. The paper presents estimates for 146 countries from all World Bank income groups for all summary measures, along with correlations between the summary measures and macroeconomic and health system indicators. Large differences emerge across countries in per capita out-of-pocket expenditures in 2011 international dollars, driven in large part by differences in per capita income and the share of GDP spent on health. The two measures of dispersion or risk—the coefficient of variation and Q90/Q50—are only weakly correlated across countries and not explained by our macroeconomic and health system indicators. Considerable variation emerges in the out-of-pocket health expenditure budget share, which is highly correlated with the incidence of “catastrophic expenditures”. Out-of-pocket expenditures tend to be regressive and catastrophic expenditures tend to be concentrated among the poor when expenditures are assessed relative to income, while expenditures tend to be progressive and catastrophic expenditures tend to be concentrated among the rich when expenditures are assessed relative to consumption. At the extreme poverty line of $1.90-a-day, most impoverishment due to out-of-pocket expenditures occurs among low-income countries.

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Sustaining Long-Run Growth and Macroeconomic Stability in Low-Income Countries—The Role of Structural Transformation and Diversification

Policy Papers ◽

10.5089/9781498343688.007 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 2014 (38) ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

Keyword(s):

Structural Transformation ◽

Low Income ◽

Low Income Countries ◽

Macroeconomic Performance ◽

Export Structure ◽

Long Run ◽

Trading Partners ◽

Per Capita

Diversification and structural transformation play important roles in influencing the macroeconomic performance of low-income countries (LICs). Increases in income per capita at early stages of development are typically accompanied by a transformation in a country’s production and export structure. This can include diversification into new products and trading partners as well as increases in the quality of existing products.

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