Historiography of the University. A New Field for an Old Topic in German Historical Scholarship = Historiografía sobre la Universidad. Un nuevo campo para un viejo tema en la Historia de la Universidad alemana

2017 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Martin Kintzinger

Abstract: There is no tradition nor genus of historiography within writing on university history in German historical research. In the Middle Ages there was no historiography of the institutionalized schools and the early universities. It began in the early modern period. From the beginning in the 17th century onwards, historiography of university mostly meant to tell about the own university and to underline its academic brilliance and, first of all, its political value for the government. In later 18th century the influence of enlightenment changed the argumentation and the politically enforced difference between academies and universities made the “identity” of universities more evident. Universities from then on did not understand themselves no longer primarily as instruments of government, but as places of scientific liberty and insofar partly of legal independence. There were conflicts and quarrels about in how far universities should just help to create educated officers for the government or open a field of independence for a “Freedom of science”. All conflict parties published their declarations, which can be used for the historiography of universities nowadays but did not intend to be understood as such. In the beginning of the 19th century the innovation of the modern university, founded by the ideas of Wilhelm of Humboldt in Prussia, and the promotion by the government, but as well the dependence from political support, set new conditions for the development of the universities and it made possible the beginning of an official historiography of university history. Until 1900 the discussion on the liberty of science and universities and their newly defined importance for the beginning nation-states as well as on the growing difference between historical and philosophical disciplines on the one hand, natural-scientific and even technical disciplines on the other hand became more and more important. Historiography of universities and their history was created,  but from the beginning on focused on controversies. Rectorate-speeches became a new genus of historiography of universities and it was of great influence. It developed a comparative, modern approach on the history of universities, but was in the same time exploited as political argument in national politics and international conflicts and wartimes. Finally, the end of free discussion and academic discourse on the historiography of universities came with the beginning of the Nazi period in Germany. Modern learned and academic historiography of the history of universities from the middle of the 20th century onwards has got the chance to reestablish discussions on the history of  universities from the Middle Ages to contemporary times and even in an international context, but did not yet find to a specific genus of historiography. Resumen: No hay tradición ni género de la historiografía dentro de la escritura de la historia de la universidad en la investigación histórica alemana. En la Edad Media no hay ninguna historiografía de los colegios institucionalizados ni de las primeras universidades. Esto comenzó en época moderna. Desde el principio en el siglo XVII en adelante, la historiografía de la universidad en su mayoría significaba relatar la historia de la propia universidad para subrayar su brillantez académica y, sobre todo, su valor político para el gobierno. A finales del siglo XVIII la influencia de la Ilustración cambia la argumentación y la diferencia impuesta políticamente entre academias y universidades hizo la “identidad” de las universidades más evidente. Universidades que, a partir de entonces, no se entienden a sí mismas ya primariamente como instrumentos de gobierno, sino como lugares de libertad científica y, en parte, de independencia legal. Hubo conflictos y disputas sobre si las universidades debían ayudar a crear los oficiales educados para el gobierno o abrir un campo independiente para la “libertad de la ciencia”. Todas las partes en conflicto publicaron sus declaraciones, que pueden ser utilizados por la historiografía de las universidades hoy en día, pero que no tienen la intención de entenderse como tal. En el comienzo del siglo XIX la innovación de la universidad moderna, fundada por las ideas de Guillermo de Humboldt en Prusia, y la promoción por parte del gobierno, pero a su vez, la dependencia del apoyo político, establecen nuevas condiciones para el desarrollo de las universidades que hicieron posible el inicio de una historiografía oficial de la historia de la universidad. Hasta 1900, el debate sobre la libertad de la ciencia y de las universidades y su importancia recientemente definida para el inicio de los Estados-nación, así como la creciente diferencia entre disciplinas históricas y filosóficas por un lado y científico-naturales e incluso técnicas por otro se volvió cada vez más importante. Una historia e historiografía de las universidades que desde el principio se ha centrado en las controversias. Los discursos de los rectores pasaron a ser un nuevo género muy influyente de la historiografía de las universidades. Se desarrolló un enfoque comparativo, versión moderna de la historia de las universidades, pero que fue al mismo tiempo explotado como argumento político en la política nacional y en los conflictos y tiempos de guerras internacionales. Por último, el final de la discusión libre y del discurso académico sobre la historiografía de las universidades vino con el inicio del período Nazi en Alemania. La historiografía sobre las universidades de mediados del siglo 20 en adelante ha tenido la oportunidad de restablecer los debates sobre la historia de las universidades de la Edad Media hasta la época contemporánea e incluso en el contexto internacional, pero aún no ha encontrado un género historiográfico específico.Keywords: scholarship and politics, confessionalization of universities, conflict of disciplines, utility of scholarship, primacy of disciplines.Palabras clave: universidad y políticas, confesionalidad de las universidades, conflicto de disciplinas, utilidad de la universidad, primacía de disciplinas.

Author(s):  
Peter Mitchell

This chapter starts as the Roman Empire fragmented, encompasses the emergence of Christianity and Islam, and explores the donkey’s place in the history of the Middle Ages, as well as what Fernand Braudel termed ‘the triumph of the mule’ in the ensuing early modern period from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Being closer in time to the present, historical documents are generally richer and more plentiful than for earlier periods, but archaeological excavations and surveys—especially of post-medieval sites and landscapes—are still undeveloped in many regions. Inevitably, therefore, what I present draws as much on textual sources as it does on them. I look first at the symbolic value of donkeys and mules in Christianity and Islam. Next, I consider their disappearance from some parts of Europe in the aftermath of Rome’s collapse and their re-expansion and persistence elsewhere. One aspect of this concerns their continuing contribution to agricultural production, another their consumption as food, a very un-Roman practice. A second theme showing continuities from previous centuries is their significance in facilitating trade and communication over both short and long distances. Tackling this requires inserting donkeys and mules into debates about how far pack animals replaced wheeled forms of transport as Late Antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages. Wide-ranging in time and space, this discussion also provides opportunities for exploring their role in human history in areas beyond those on which I have concentrated thus far. West Africa is one, the Silk Road networks linking China to Central Asia a second, and China’s southward connections into Southeast Asia a third. According to the New Testament Jesus entered Jerusalem on Palm Sunday seated on a donkey (Plate 20). The seventh-century apocryphal Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew also envisages donkeys carrying His mother to Bethlehem, being present at the Nativity, and conveying the Holy Family into temporary exile in Egypt. Donkeys thus framed both ends of Jesus’ life and, given their importance in moving people and goods in first-century Palestine, must have been a familiar sight. But the implications of their place in Christianity’s narrative were originally quite different from those that are generally understood today.


2020 ◽  
Vol 25 (1) ◽  
pp. 119-134
Author(s):  
Andrea Bendlage

AbstractSince the Middle Ages, hospitable courts played a central role in the complex judicial landscape of the pre-modern age for the conflict resolution of parties of different regional origins, because civil disputes could be dealt with more quickly if at least one plaintiff or defendant was a (legal) stranger. With the obvious relationship between (social) belonging and law established by these courts, questions of asymmetries in law come to the fore, which under the common keywords of inequality, integration and exclusion are a leading interest of research in the history of law, culture and crime, but which have so far hardly been dealt with in research within the framework of civil court practice. The Duisburg Hospitable Court shows that the historical civil proceedings concerning non-repaid loans, undelivered goods or disputed estates were no less important for social stability and order in the pre-modern period than criminal proceedings, even though social integration and exclusion were not the core issues of a civil lawsuit. Since the Middle Ages, hospitable courts concerned themselves with communication and trade practices and at the same time constituted an institution that offered legal security for both foreigners and locals. This was still true in the early modern period, which generally stands for a time that became increasingly hardened towards strangers and people on the move.


2021 ◽  
Vol 15 ◽  
pp. 297-315
Author(s):  
Radosław Jakubczyk

The present paper gives an overview of the history of climbing on Hekla and Snæfellsjökull, Iceland’s most famous volcanoes, in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the Middle Ages and early modern period, Hekla was compared to the gates of hell due to its frequent and violent eruptions. Snæfellsjökull was considered a supernatural space and a domain of Bárður, the eponymous hero of Bárðar saga Snæfellsáss. The author analyses a wide range of sources: Reise igiennem Island by Bjarni Pálsson and Eggert Ólafsson (who reached the summits of Hekla and Snæfellsjökull in 1750 and 1754, respectively), British (from Banks to Burton) and French (from Gaimard to Labonne) travelogues, Ida Pfeiffer’s journals (who was the first foreign woman to climb Hekla).


2020 ◽  
Vol 3 (5) ◽  
pp. 1312-1341
Author(s):  
S. A. Polkhov

This publication is a continuation in the series of academic translations of the books of Shinchō-kō ki chronicle into Russian. Shinchō-kō ki is a biography of the “unifier of Japan” Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582). One of the most important sources on the history of Japan (the end of the Middle Ages – the beginning of the Early Modern period), it was finally formed at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries. The author of the chronicle is Nobunaga’s vassal called O̅ta Gyu̅ichi (1527–1613?). The book 11 mainly provides accounts about the military campaign of other vassals of Nobunaga against powerful Mo̅ri house and its allies. The latter was joined by Bessho Nagaharu, one of the influential lords of Harima province. The first academic translation of Shinchō- kō ki into Russian is supplied with a detailed commentary. In this commentary, the records as found in the chronicle are compared against other sources. Besides, in the commentary, the author of the translation offers his interpretation of the complicated passages from Shinchō-kō ki along with their traditional interpretations as found in the scholarly literature.


Author(s):  
Jacek Soszyński

The article deals with the development of graphical systems of presenting history in universal chronicles on the instances of Eusebius of Caesarea and Jerome in late antiquity, Martinus Polonus in the thirteenth century, and Werner Rolevinck at the break of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. With the translation of the Eusebius’ Chronikoi Canones performed by Jerome, the synchronistic table was introduced into the Western historiographical tradition. This form of presenting history became firmly rooted in Latin chronicles, in particular within the genre of universal chronicles, which endeavoured to recount the history of mankind from Adam to the Final Judgement, and were very popular well into the early modern period. The author argues that the chronicles of Eusebius/Jerome and Martinus Polonus simply utilized synchronicity, in their pursuit to produce encyclopaedic works, aimed at the scholarly reader. In their intention, the synchronistic table was a technical means for a more effective presentation of past events. With Werner Rolevinck the case was different. The layout introduced by him was no longer asynchronistic table, but an attempt at visualizing history, with very little attention paid to precise dating of various events and persons. He constructed his complicated graphical system for religious purposes, to contemplate the magnificence of God’s creation, in accordance with the ideas of the devotio moderna, and destined his work for a much wider audience than scholars.


2020 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
pp. 938-967
Author(s):  
S. A. Polkhov

The publication provides a commented translation into Russian of the book VIII of Shinchō ō ki chronicle. The article continues the series of translations of books of Shinchō ō ki, published by the author. Shinchō ō ki is a biography of the so called “unifier of Japan” Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582). This is one of the most important sources on the history of Japan in the end of the Middle Ages – beginning of the Early Modern period. This present redaction dates back most likely to the 16th – beginning of the 17th cent. The author of the chronicle is O̅ ta Gyu̅ ichi (1527–1613?) the vassal of Nobunaga. This part of the chronicle describes the campaign of Oda Nobunaga in 1575 in the province of Echizen, which had previously come under the control of the Ikko̅ -ikki forces. Having brutally dealt with Ikko̅ -ikki’s supporters, Nobunaga regained his power over Echizen. Scroll VIII contains the text of Nobunaga's instructions to his vassal Shibata Katsuie. Katsuie was to be guided by these instructions when governing Echizen province. In addition, in this part of his work, O:̅ta Gyu̅ iti narrates about other important events, in particular, the assignment to the “unifier of Japan” posts at the Imperial court, as well as the transfer by Nobunaga of the headship of the Oda house to his eldest son Nobutada. The first academic translation of Shinchō ō ki into Russian is accompanied by a detailed commentary. The present author offers there a comparison between the data found in the chronicle against other sources. In addition, in the commentary comprises the authors interpretation of the difficult passages from the Shinchō ō ki along the traditional views on their meaning as expressed in the modern scholarship.


2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ferdinand Gregorovius ◽  
Annie Hamilton

2009 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ferdinand Gregorovius ◽  
Annie Hamilton

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