Efferocytosis during Skeletal Muscle Regeneration

Efferocytosis, i.e., engulfment of dead cells by macrophages, is a crucial step during tissue repair after an injury. Efferocytosis delineates the transition from the pro-inflammatory phase of the inflammatory response to the recovery phase that ensures tissue reconstruction. We present here the role of efferocytosis during skeletal muscle regeneration, which is a paradigm of sterile tissue injury followed by a complete regeneration. We present the molecular mechanisms that have been described to control this process, and particularly the metabolic control of efferocytosis during skeletal muscle regeneration.

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The Role of Metabolic Remodeling in Macrophage Polarization and Its Effect on Skeletal Muscle Regeneration

Antioxidants and Redox Signaling ◽

10.1089/ars.2017.7420 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 30 (12) ◽

pp. 1553-1598 ◽

Cited By ~ 10

Author(s):

Francesca De Santa ◽

Laura Vitiello ◽

Alessio Torcinaro ◽

Elisabetta Ferraro

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Muscle Regeneration ◽

Macrophage Polarization ◽

Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽

Metabolic Remodeling

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The Potential Role of Insulin-Like Growth Factors in Skeletal Muscle Regeneration

Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology ◽

10.1139/h96-021 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 21 (4) ◽

pp. 236-250 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

Jamie MacGregor ◽

Wade S. Parkhouse

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Growth Hormone ◽

Growth Factors ◽

Muscle Regeneration ◽

Potential Role ◽

Tissue Growth ◽

Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽

Tissue Type ◽

Insulin Like Growth Factors

The role of the insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II), previously known as the somatomedins, in general growth and development of various tissues has been known for many years. Thought of exclusively as endocrine factors produced by the liver, and under the control of growth hormone, the somatomedins were known as the intermediaries by which growth hormone exerted its cellular effects during tissue growth and maturation. Eventually it was discovered that virtually every tissue type is capable of autocrine production of the IGFs, and their involvement in skeletal muscle tissue repair and regeneration became apparent. Recent advances in technology have allowed the characterisation of many of the different growth factors believed to play a role in muscle regeneration, and experimental manipulations of cells in culture have provided insight into the effects of the various growth factors on the myoblast. This paper explores the potential role of the IGFs in skeletal muscle regeneration. A critical role of IGF-II in terminal differentiation of proliferating muscle precurser cells following injury is proposed. Key words: growth factors, myogenesis, skeletal muscle regeneration

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The role of TGF-β1 during skeletal muscle regeneration

Cell Biology International ◽

10.1002/cbin.10725 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 41 (7) ◽

pp. 706-715 ◽

Cited By ~ 38

Author(s):

Kamila Delaney ◽

Paulina Kasprzycka ◽

Maria Anna Ciemerych ◽

Malgorzata Zimowska

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Muscle Regeneration ◽

Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽

Tgf Β1

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Role of proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors in skeletal muscle regeneration

Medycyna Weterynaryjna ◽

10.21521/mw.5551 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 72 (8) ◽

pp. 472-478

Author(s):

Marta Milewska ◽

Katarzyna Grzelkowska-Kowalczyk

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Growth Factors ◽

Proinflammatory Cytokines ◽

Muscle Regeneration ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Critical Role ◽

Muscle Fibers ◽

Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽

Functional Efficiency

Skeletal muscle healing after injury can be divided into three distinct but overlapping phases. The destruction phase is characterized by rupture followed by necrosis of muscle fibers, formation of hematoma and inflammatory reaction. During the repair phase a necrotic tissue is phagocyted by macrophages, muscle fibers are regenerating and connective tissue scars are formed. The remodeling phase concerns the period when regenerating muscle fibers mature, scar contraction and reorganization occurs and the muscle recovers its functional efficiency. Proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α) and growth factors (FGF, IGF, TGF-β, HGF) play a critical role in all phases of muscle repair. Moreover, chemokines expressed at early stages of myogenesis can regulate the survival and proliferation of myoblasts. Chemokines expressed in vivo in muscle cells can directly influence myogenesis, but can also act in a paracrine manner by recruiting the immune cells (macrophages) to injured skeletal muscles, which is crucial for the regeneration process. Identification of molecules regulating myogenesis, like cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, contributes to the exploration of molecular mechanisms that can improve muscle regeneration after injury, diseases, surgery and increase the effectiveness of cell transplantation.

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Macrophages in Skeletal Muscle Dystrophies, An Entangled Partner

Journal of Neuromuscular Diseases ◽

10.3233/jnd-210737 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-23

Author(s):

Theret Marine ◽

Saclier Marielle ◽

Messina Graziella ◽

Rossi M.V. Fabio

Keyword(s):

Skeletal Muscle ◽

Endothelial Cells ◽

Muscle Regeneration ◽

Genetic Diseases ◽

Fatty Infiltration ◽

Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽

Muscular Dystrophies ◽

Pathogenic Role ◽

Muscle Remodeling

While skeletal muscle remodeling happens throughout life, diseases that result in its dysfunction are accountable for many deaths. Indeed, skeletal muscle is exceptionally capable to respond to stimuli modifying its homeostasis, such as in atrophy, hypertrophy, regeneration and repair. In particular conditions such as genetic diseases (muscular dystrophies), skeletal muscle’s capacity to remodel is strongly affected and undergoes continuous cycles of chronic damage. This induces scarring, fatty infiltration, as well as loss of contractibility and of the ability to generate force. In this context, inflammation, primarily mediated by macrophages, plays a central pathogenic role. Macrophages contribute as the primary regulators of inflammation during skeletal muscle regeneration, affecting tissue-resident cells such as myogenic cells and endothelial cells, but also fibro-adipogenic progenitors, which are the main source of the fibro fatty scar. During skeletal muscle regeneration their function is tightly orchestrated, while in dystrophies their fate is strongly disturbed, resulting in chronic inflammation. In this review, we will discuss the latest findings on the role of macrophages in skeletal muscle diseases, and how they are regulated.

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