Movements of Mycoplasma mobile Gliding Machinery Detected by High-Speed Atomic Force Microscopy

ABSTRACT Mycoplasma mobile, a parasitic bacterium, glides on solid surfaces, such as animal cells and glass, by a special mechanism. This process is driven by the force generated through ATP hydrolysis on an internal structure. However, the spatial and temporal behaviors of the internal structures in living cells are unclear. In this study, we detected the movements of the internal structure by scanning cells immobilized on a glass substrate using high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM). By scanning the surface of a cell, we succeeded in visualizing particles, 2 nm in height and aligned mostly along the cell axis with a pitch of 31.5 nm, consistent with previously reported features based on electron microscopy. Movements of individual particles were then analyzed by HS-AFM. In the presence of sodium azide, the average speed of particle movements was reduced, suggesting that movement is linked to ATP hydrolysis. Partial inhibition of the reaction by sodium azide enabled us to analyze particle behavior in detail, showing that the particles move 9 nm right, relative to the gliding direction, and 2 nm into the cell interior in 330 ms and then return to their original position, based on ATP hydrolysis. IMPORTANCE The Mycoplasma genus contains bacteria generally parasitic to animals and plants. Some Mycoplasma species form a protrusion at a pole, bind to solid surfaces, and glide by a special mechanism linked to their infection and survival. The special machinery for gliding can be divided into surface and internal structures that have evolved from rotary motors represented by ATP synthases. This study succeeded in visualizing the real-time movements of the internal structure by scanning from the outside of the cell using an innovative high-speed atomic force microscope and then analyzing their behaviors.

Movements of Mycoplasma mobile gliding machinery detected by high-speed atomic force microscopy

ABSTRACTMycoplasma mobile, a parasitic bacterium, glides on solid surfaces, such as animal cells and glass by a special mechanism. This process is driven by the force generated through ATP hydrolysis on an internal structure. However, the spatial and temporal behaviors of the internal structures in living cells are unclear. In this study, we detected the movements of the internal structure by scanning cells immobilized on a glass substrate using high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM). By scanning the surface of a cell, we succeeded in visualizing particles, 2 nm in hight and aligned mostly along the cell axis with a pitch of 31.5 nm, consistent with previously reported features based on electron microscopy. Movements of individual particles were then analyzed by HS-AFM. In the presence of sodium azide, the average speed of particle movements was reduced, suggesting that movement is linked to ATP hydrolysis. Partial inhibition of the reaction by sodium azide enabled us to analyze particle behavior in detail, showing that the particles move 9 nm right, relative to the gliding direction, and 2 nm into the cell interior in 330 ms, then return to their original position, based on ATP hydrolysis.IMPORTANCEThe Mycoplasma genus contains bacteria generally parasitic to animals and plants. Some Mycoplasma species form a protrusion at a pole, bind to solid surfaces, and glide by a special mechanism linked to their infection and survival. The special machinery for gliding can be divided into surface and internal structures that have evolved from rotary motors represented by ATP synthases. This study succeeded in visualizing the real-time movements of the internal structure by scanning from the outside of the cell using an innovative high-speed atomic force microscope, and then analyzing their behaviors.

“Regulatory Sandboxes” in Russia: New Horizons and Challenges

“Regulatory sandboxes” are regarded as a special mechanism for setting up experimental regulation in the area of digital innovation (especially in financial technologies), creating a special regime for a limited number of participants and for a limited time.Russiahas its own method of experimental regulation, which is not typical but may be helpful for other jurisdictions. There are three approaches to legal experiments (including digital innovations) inRussia. The first approach is accepting special regulation on different issues. There are recent examples of special laws (e.g. Federal Law on the experiment with artificial intelligence technologies inMoscow). An alternative to this option is establishing experimental regulation by an act of the Government if legislation does not prohibit it (e.g. labeling with means of identification). The second approach deals only with Fintech innovations and provides a special mechanism to pilot models of innovative financial technologies. The participants of such a “sandbox” may create a close-to-life model in order to estimate the effects and risks. If the model works fine, the regulation may be amended. The third approach works with creating a universal mechanism of real-life experiments in the sphere of digital innovations based on the special Federal Law and the specific decision of the Government of theRussian Federationor the Bank of Russia in the financial sphere. The author compares the three approaches and their implementation within the framework of Russian legislation and practice and concludes that this experience may be used by developing countries with inflexible regulation, in order to facilitate the development of digital innovations.

Appraisal of property rights of intellectual property

Problem setting. The urgency of the problem is caused by the fact that active innovation processes occurring around the world, informatization of society and transformation of knowledge into a source of progress indicate that the profitability of entrepreneurial activity in a market economy to some extent depends on the ability to dispose of the results of human intellectual activity, hence the importance of intellectual property, their value is constantly increasing, which requires the implementation of a special mechanism for determining their value (appraisal). Analysis of recent researches and publications. In the scientific literature the scientists such as V.S. Drobyazko, P.M. Tsybulov, O.O. Horodov, I.M. Bieltiukova, O.M. Vinnyk, A.O. Kodynets, O.R. Kibenko, O.O. Tverezenko, V.S. Shcherbyna, I.YE. Yakubivskyy have made a significant contribution to the development of the issues on valuation of property rights of intellectual property. Target of research. To analyze the mechanism for assessing the value of such group of intangible assets as property rights of intellectual property and identify the features of this mechanism. Article’s main body. Appraisal activity is a complex institution. Appraisal of intellectual property requires the integration of the economic concept of value and the legal concept of property. But the intangible character (ideal nature) of intellectual property objects distinguishes them from other civil rights objects and becomes a certain obstacle when it comes to determining their value. When it comes to appraisal of objects of the intellectual property rights, such actions are subjected not to intangible (ideal) objects, but to exclusive property rights to them. However, the Law “On Appraisal of Property, Property Rights and Professional Appraisal Activity” considered of objects of the intellectual property rights as intangible assets that, in turn, along with things, securities, units form a broader category “property”. If the legislator had given the object of valuation the exclusive property rights and classified them as “property rights that could be valued”, it would be more in keeping with their nature. The Law “On Appraisal of Property, Property Rights and Professional Appraisal Activity” distinguishes between the market value of property and non-market types of property values (ie other types of value that are different from market value). As a general rule, the market value of objects is determined. Thus the value of property rights of intellectual property is determined by the approximate price of market demand for them. Appraisal activity is carried out in cases established by the legislation of Ukraine, international agreements, on the basis of the agreement, as well as at the request of one of the parties to the contract with the consent of the parties. The legislation defines cases when appraisal shall be mandatory. Conclusions and prospects for the development. The commercialization of intellectual property objects requires the implementation of a special mechanism for determining their value (appraisal), and the improvement of current legislation in appraisal activity field. Property rights of intellectual property belong to those, which have a monetary valuation, and must be carried out under the legislation. Valuation of property rights of intellectual property may take place, in particular, in the following cases: 1) defining the valuation of the exclusive rights transferred under the contract in intellectual property field, in particular the license contract, and defining the license fee base; 2) contribution the property rights of intellectual property to the authorized (composite) capital of certain types of companies; 3) using property rights of intellectual property in joint activities without the creation of a legal entity (including in the form of a common partnership); 4) the pledge of the property rights of intellectual property.

A prosecutor as a subject of an administrative offense

The paper considers a rather unexpected problem that is practically not discussed in the literature, i.e. the problem of considering a Prosecutor as a specific subject of an administrative offense. The current legislation provides for considering the named person not only as a subject of administrative jurisdiction, a special participant in the administrative proceedings, but also as a subject that may be held administratively responsible. Unfortunately, a special mechanism for bringing the Prosecutor to administrative responsibility is not spelled out in detail. Thus, the author proposes the options for qualifying possible offenses with his or her participation, the features of imposing certain types of penalties and transformation of both types of responsibility of prosecutors and public prosecution offices as legal entities.

Civil Litigation and the Opioid Epidemic: The Role of Courts in a National Health Crisis

The devastating impact of the national opioid epidemic has given rise to hundreds of lawsuits. This article details the extremely broad range of legal claims, compares the opioid cases to other public health litigation efforts, including tobacco, and describes the special mechanism — a multidistrict litigation — through which more than 700 opioid-related cases have been consolidated thus far, with settlement almost certain to follow.

Mechanisms of paradigm leveling and the role of universal preferences in morphophonological change

Historical linguists have long been divided in their views about the mechanisms behind paradigm leveling, with many invoking a special mechanism related to a universal preference for paradigm uniformity while others attribute leveling to the same mechanism responsible for other types of analogical change. I argue that although ‘proportional’ analogical innovation plays a major role in paradigm leveling, it cannot account for all cases, and that something akin to the ‘interference’ mechanisms commonly associated with contamination and folk etymology account well for the non-proportional instances. I further show that all of the mechanisms involved in paradigm leveling are also implicated in other types of analogical change, and I argue against the need to posit any universal bias against (stem) allomorphy.

A permutation information theory tour through different interest rate maturities: the Libor case

This paper analyses Libor interest rates for seven different maturities and referred to operations in British pounds, euros, Swiss francs and Japanese yen, during the period 2001–2015. The analysis is performed by means of two quantifiers derived from information theory: the permutation Shannon entropy and the permutation Fisher information measure. An anomalous behaviour in the Libor is detected in all currencies except euros during the years 2006–2012. The stochastic switch is more severe in one, two and three months maturities. Given the special mechanism of Libor setting, we conjecture that the behaviour could have been produced by the manipulation that was uncovered by financial authorities. We argue that our methodology is pertinent as a market overseeing instrument.