Contrasting protist communities (Cercozoa: Rhizaria) in pristine and earthworm-invaded North American deciduous forests

Earthworms are considered ecosystem engineers due to their fundamental impact on soil structure, soil processes and on other soil biota. An invasion of non-native earthworm species has altered soils of North America since European settlement, a process currently expanding into still earthworm-free forest ecosystems due to continuous spread and increasing soil temperatures owing to climate change. Although earthworms are known to modify soil microbial diversity and activity, it is as yet unclear how eukaryote consumers in soil microbial food webs will be affected. Here, we investigated how earthworm invasion affects the diversity of Cercozoa, one of the most dominant protist taxa in soils. Although the composition of the native cercozoan community clearly shifted in response to earthworm invasion, the communities of the different forests showed distinct responses. We identified 39 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) exclusively indicating earthworm invasion, hinting at an earthworm-associated community of Cercozoa. In particular, Woronina pythii, a hyper-parasite of plant-parasitic Oomycota in American forests, increased strongly in the presence of invasive earthworms, indicating an influence of invasive earthworms on oomycete communities and potentially on forest health, which requires further research.

Popular Legitimacy

The American and French Revolutions derived from—and promoted—a concept of legitimacy based on popular consent and the public will. This concept displaced the practice of relying on dynasticism, the prescriptive rights of hereditary monarchs. As a result, plebiscites have taken the place of dynastic marriages as mechanisms for the legitimization of transfers of sovereignty. Noteworthy examples include decisions in the unification of Italy and in the European settlement of 1919–1920. Plebiscites have not, however, been conducted when Great Powers have ruled them out—for instance, France’s rejection of a plebiscite concerning Alsace-Lorraine after the First World War. Popular legitimacy raises questions about the defining characteristics of a self-governing nation—its size and capacity for self-defence, its language and history, and the allegiance choices of its citizens. Disputes over minority rights may raise questions about national identity and cohesion, including the possible founding of new states seceding from established countries. In some cases, such as Israel, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, religion is a fundamental source of identity and state legitimacy.

'Free to the People': The Design and Function of Aotearoa New Zealand's Carnegie Libraries

<p><b>Libraries have formed an inherent part of Aotearoa New Zealand’s communities since the beginning of organised European settlement. Through the case study of New Zealand’s participation in the international Carnegie library programme, this thesis considers the intersection of library architecture and librarianship. It is asserted that libraries have made a significant contribution to New Zealand’s regional civic culture but, despite their social importance, have sat outside most architectural historical surveys. The study explores how a critical analysis of the design and function of purpose-built Carnegie library buildings provides a deeper understanding of these central social institutions.</b></p> <p>Despite the prevalence and value of libraries, very little has been published on the history of library architecture in New Zealand. Only a small amount of research in this country’s library and information studies field addresses library architecture, and architectural writing on libraries is similarly scarce. This research addresses the gap in the literature by employing an interdisciplinary and multi-method approach based on historical and archival research, and site visits. Two key areas of investigation are examined through the case study. Firstly, the form of New Zealand’s Carnegie libraries is analysed in order to determine the principal elements of the buildings and to trace the influences on their design. Secondly, the function of the buildings is investigated, with a focus on the developing library profession and the service provided to the only two groups allocated dedicated space: women and children.</p> <p>This thesis argues that New Zealand’s participation in the Carnegie library programme occurred at a significant time in the development of library architecture and librarianship, and the libraries reflect the profound shifts that were taking place. The findings demonstrate that these library buildings serve as physical evidence of a local interpretation of the major trends in early twentieth-century librarianship and the wider social context of that developing professional practice. Moreover, it shows that a more fulsome understanding of library architecture furthers the appreciation of the part libraries have played in New Zealand social and cultural history, and adds to the field of heritage and museum studies by broadening the understanding and recognition of related cultural institutions. Due to the international nature of the Carnegie library programme and continued importance of libraries, the results of this study are not solely of benefit on local and national levels; they have transnational value.</p>

'Free to the People': The Design and Function of Aotearoa New Zealand's Carnegie Libraries

<p><b>Libraries have formed an inherent part of Aotearoa New Zealand’s communities since the beginning of organised European settlement. Through the case study of New Zealand’s participation in the international Carnegie library programme, this thesis considers the intersection of library architecture and librarianship. It is asserted that libraries have made a significant contribution to New Zealand’s regional civic culture but, despite their social importance, have sat outside most architectural historical surveys. The study explores how a critical analysis of the design and function of purpose-built Carnegie library buildings provides a deeper understanding of these central social institutions.</b></p> <p>Despite the prevalence and value of libraries, very little has been published on the history of library architecture in New Zealand. Only a small amount of research in this country’s library and information studies field addresses library architecture, and architectural writing on libraries is similarly scarce. This research addresses the gap in the literature by employing an interdisciplinary and multi-method approach based on historical and archival research, and site visits. Two key areas of investigation are examined through the case study. Firstly, the form of New Zealand’s Carnegie libraries is analysed in order to determine the principal elements of the buildings and to trace the influences on their design. Secondly, the function of the buildings is investigated, with a focus on the developing library profession and the service provided to the only two groups allocated dedicated space: women and children.</p> <p>This thesis argues that New Zealand’s participation in the Carnegie library programme occurred at a significant time in the development of library architecture and librarianship, and the libraries reflect the profound shifts that were taking place. The findings demonstrate that these library buildings serve as physical evidence of a local interpretation of the major trends in early twentieth-century librarianship and the wider social context of that developing professional practice. Moreover, it shows that a more fulsome understanding of library architecture furthers the appreciation of the part libraries have played in New Zealand social and cultural history, and adds to the field of heritage and museum studies by broadening the understanding and recognition of related cultural institutions. Due to the international nature of the Carnegie library programme and continued importance of libraries, the results of this study are not solely of benefit on local and national levels; they have transnational value.</p>

The Poiesis of Systems

<p>This thesis looks at how to engage with the existing ‘poiesis’ of the Kapiti region north of Wellington, to reveal the large scale ecological systems operating in this coastal landscape, making them legible at the human scale. The research has also developed into an exploration of how sites should produce their own boundaries, and how simplistic structures can bring together the large-scale systems down to an engaging human scale. Kapiti is a region undergoing fast development and change. Since the days of early European settlement the natural processes once found in there have been altered or depleted to allow for human infrastructure. This has left it with degraded dune and wetland ecosystems. Through the lens of different ‘Acts / Catalysts’ this research uses a variety of design approaches to privilege the human perspective of experiencing space. The design outcome of this research is a series of wooden catalyst structures arranged along a transect starting in Kapiti Island and ending at the foot of the Tararua Ranges.</p>

The Poiesis of Systems

<p>This thesis looks at how to engage with the existing ‘poiesis’ of the Kapiti region north of Wellington, to reveal the large scale ecological systems operating in this coastal landscape, making them legible at the human scale. The research has also developed into an exploration of how sites should produce their own boundaries, and how simplistic structures can bring together the large-scale systems down to an engaging human scale. Kapiti is a region undergoing fast development and change. Since the days of early European settlement the natural processes once found in there have been altered or depleted to allow for human infrastructure. This has left it with degraded dune and wetland ecosystems. Through the lens of different ‘Acts / Catalysts’ this research uses a variety of design approaches to privilege the human perspective of experiencing space. The design outcome of this research is a series of wooden catalyst structures arranged along a transect starting in Kapiti Island and ending at the foot of the Tararua Ranges.</p>

A Diachronic Exploration of the Harvesting of the Marine Environment to a Distinctive New Zealand English Lexicon, 1796-2005

<p><b>This study examines the lexical contribution the harvesting of the marine environment has made to a specific New Zealand English lexicon from 1795 to 2006. It draws on a range of written sources including annual government reports, periodicals, and unpublished manuscripts. The identified words are compiled into a wordlist based on historical principles, which includes definitions and numerous citations of usage. The sea coast was an area of early economic activity in New Zealand, with whaling constituting one of our earliest industries, and its practitioners some of the earliest English speaking settlers. It remains an area of continued cultural and economic significance. Therefore, the compiled wordlist provides not just a repository of long forgotten words, but an historical account of a living language in an area of continued significance to New Zealand.</b></p> <p>The body of New Zealandisms identified in this study are analysed systematically. Firstly, the lexical items are examined in seven 30 year time periods from 1796 to 2005 to determine changes in the number of innovations over time. The results show that the largest numbers of New Zealandisms were identified during the stages of early settlement, and in recent years. This suggests that New Zealand English continues to flourish at the lexical level, despite the threat which globalisation is perceived to pose to regional variation. Closer examination also reveals that lexical innovation in New Zealand is linked with New Zealand's growing sense of independence, and a dynamic orientation to the marine resource. In addition, a regional typology is applied to the identified lexis based on Deverson's (2000) model which shows when and how the innovation occurs, via coining and borrowing, or semantic shift. New words are examined to identify which word formation processes are the most productive. The categorisation reveals that lexical innovation in the area of marine harvesting is strongly focused on referents which are unique to New Zealand, and this is constant throughout the period studied. However, this reflects ongoing changes in the way that we label our unique referents, rather than the sheer number of unique referents. While new words are slightly more prevalent than semantic shift as a means of innovation in the marine domain, there is significant variation in this over time. That is, borrowing as a significant feature of lexical innovation during early European settlement is replaced in dominance by semantic shift as colonisation progresses. Since the 1970s, new words again dominate the form of lexical innovation, especially through the use of multi-word items employed to construct a complex management system. This impacts on the nature of the fisheries discourse and also our perception of the marine environment.</p> <p>The study of the contribution of the marine harvesting lexicon to New Zealand English creates a cultural document in an area of social and economic importance. It also provides a body of words which is available for analysis. The results of categorising the identified New Zealandisms contribute to our knowledge of the nature of New Zealand lexical innovation, and how it has changed throughout the European settlement of New Zealand.</p>

SubUrban Dream: Reinterpreting the suburban dream in Auckland's medium density housing

<p>The suburban dream has defined the Kiwi lifestyle since early European settlement. However, New Zealand’s growing cities are making this form of living increasingly unobtainable. The Auckland City Plan is aiming to create the world’s most liveable city. To achieve this, their Unitary Plan has proposed accommodating up to 70% of population growth within existing urban limits. A large proportion of new density is to be achieved through medium-density housing around existing suburban centres. However, current medium-density housing typologies fail to support the kiwi lifestyle. The combination of high growth and revision of Auckland’s new development strategy has created an opportunity to explore how medium-density housing can be reinvented to appeal to the kiwi lifestyle. This thesis proposes an approach to suburban intensification which can achieve Auckland’s required density, as well as the ideals of New Zealand’s preferred suburban dream. Initial explorations highlight three key ideals from the suburban dream; independence, expansiveness, and community. These ideals are compromised in current medium-density housing, and form key criteria for architectural critique throughout this research. The work of Atelier Bow-Wow and their theory of behaviourology highlighted the need for a human dimension within architecture, and informed a methodology to drive individuality of dwellings throughout the design investigations. An iterative design methodology explored how the relationships between, and configuration of dwellings could efficiently utilise both ground and vertical conditions to strengthen the key suburban ideals. Further investigations explored how architectural elements could generate gradients of privacy, to reduce the distance required between dwellings. The expansive suburban yard was used to test how shared space could be articulated, and how its relationship to the dwelling can reinforce all suburban ideals. The final stage of the design extended the scope of the investigation to the surrounding context, highlighting significant findings and further opportunities for development. Overall, the research suggests a methodology for designing medium-density housing which not only achieves ideals of the suburban dream, but demonstrates that medium-density housing can provide a lifestyle which addresses and exceeds suburban expectations.</p>

SubUrban Dream: Reinterpreting the suburban dream in Auckland's medium density housing

<p>The suburban dream has defined the Kiwi lifestyle since early European settlement. However, New Zealand’s growing cities are making this form of living increasingly unobtainable. The Auckland City Plan is aiming to create the world’s most liveable city. To achieve this, their Unitary Plan has proposed accommodating up to 70% of population growth within existing urban limits. A large proportion of new density is to be achieved through medium-density housing around existing suburban centres. However, current medium-density housing typologies fail to support the kiwi lifestyle. The combination of high growth and revision of Auckland’s new development strategy has created an opportunity to explore how medium-density housing can be reinvented to appeal to the kiwi lifestyle. This thesis proposes an approach to suburban intensification which can achieve Auckland’s required density, as well as the ideals of New Zealand’s preferred suburban dream. Initial explorations highlight three key ideals from the suburban dream; independence, expansiveness, and community. These ideals are compromised in current medium-density housing, and form key criteria for architectural critique throughout this research. The work of Atelier Bow-Wow and their theory of behaviourology highlighted the need for a human dimension within architecture, and informed a methodology to drive individuality of dwellings throughout the design investigations. An iterative design methodology explored how the relationships between, and configuration of dwellings could efficiently utilise both ground and vertical conditions to strengthen the key suburban ideals. Further investigations explored how architectural elements could generate gradients of privacy, to reduce the distance required between dwellings. The expansive suburban yard was used to test how shared space could be articulated, and how its relationship to the dwelling can reinforce all suburban ideals. The final stage of the design extended the scope of the investigation to the surrounding context, highlighting significant findings and further opportunities for development. Overall, the research suggests a methodology for designing medium-density housing which not only achieves ideals of the suburban dream, but demonstrates that medium-density housing can provide a lifestyle which addresses and exceeds suburban expectations.</p>

A Diachronic Exploration of the Harvesting of the Marine Environment to a Distinctive New Zealand English Lexicon, 1796-2005

<p><b>This study examines the lexical contribution the harvesting of the marine environment has made to a specific New Zealand English lexicon from 1795 to 2006. It draws on a range of written sources including annual government reports, periodicals, and unpublished manuscripts. The identified words are compiled into a wordlist based on historical principles, which includes definitions and numerous citations of usage. The sea coast was an area of early economic activity in New Zealand, with whaling constituting one of our earliest industries, and its practitioners some of the earliest English speaking settlers. It remains an area of continued cultural and economic significance. Therefore, the compiled wordlist provides not just a repository of long forgotten words, but an historical account of a living language in an area of continued significance to New Zealand.</b></p> <p>The body of New Zealandisms identified in this study are analysed systematically. Firstly, the lexical items are examined in seven 30 year time periods from 1796 to 2005 to determine changes in the number of innovations over time. The results show that the largest numbers of New Zealandisms were identified during the stages of early settlement, and in recent years. This suggests that New Zealand English continues to flourish at the lexical level, despite the threat which globalisation is perceived to pose to regional variation. Closer examination also reveals that lexical innovation in New Zealand is linked with New Zealand's growing sense of independence, and a dynamic orientation to the marine resource. In addition, a regional typology is applied to the identified lexis based on Deverson's (2000) model which shows when and how the innovation occurs, via coining and borrowing, or semantic shift. New words are examined to identify which word formation processes are the most productive. The categorisation reveals that lexical innovation in the area of marine harvesting is strongly focused on referents which are unique to New Zealand, and this is constant throughout the period studied. However, this reflects ongoing changes in the way that we label our unique referents, rather than the sheer number of unique referents. While new words are slightly more prevalent than semantic shift as a means of innovation in the marine domain, there is significant variation in this over time. That is, borrowing as a significant feature of lexical innovation during early European settlement is replaced in dominance by semantic shift as colonisation progresses. Since the 1970s, new words again dominate the form of lexical innovation, especially through the use of multi-word items employed to construct a complex management system. This impacts on the nature of the fisheries discourse and also our perception of the marine environment.</p> <p>The study of the contribution of the marine harvesting lexicon to New Zealand English creates a cultural document in an area of social and economic importance. It also provides a body of words which is available for analysis. The results of categorising the identified New Zealandisms contribute to our knowledge of the nature of New Zealand lexical innovation, and how it has changed throughout the European settlement of New Zealand.</p>