Bilingual language development in infancy: What can we do to support bilingual families?

Many infants and children around the world grow up exposed to two or more languages. Their success in learning each of their languages is a direct consequence of the quantity and quality of their everyday language experience, including at home, in daycare and preschools, and in the broader community context. Here, we discuss how research on early language learning can inform policies that promote successful bilingual development across the varied contexts in which infants and children live and learn. Throughout our discussions, we highlight that each individual child’s experience is unique. In fact, it seems that there are as many ways to grow up bilingual as there are bilingual children. To promote successful bilingual development, we need policies that acknowledge this variability and support frequent exposure to high-quality experience in each of a child’s languages.

From 3 to 5: Pragmatic Functions of Child Code-Switching

The paper focuses on the pragmatic peculiarities of Russian-English code-switching in the speech of the children who simultaneously acquire Russian and English according to "one person – one language" strategy within a Russian family in Russia. The research data are pragmatically marked utterances of the two boys made when each of them was at the age of three to five. Their bilingualism developed as a monoethnic one since they acquire one of the languages (Russian) from a native Russian speaker and the other (English) from a non-native speaker who belongs to Russian ethnos and culture. The authors argue that pragmatic functions of code-switching reflect the children's attitude to each language and bilingual communication. Child bilingual pragmemes are studied longitudinally, which helps the researchers to reveal the dynamics of code-switching intentions within three years of children's bilingual communication. The results of the study demonstrate the prevalence of addressee-oriented and inducing pragmatic functions of code-switches during the whole period under study. The explanation for this fact lies in the specific strategy of bilingual development and the understanding of the importance of each language in children's bilingual communication. By the age of five, the children gradually develop their bilingual self-reflection, which results in more frequent metalinguistic pragmemes in their mixed utterances.

Cross-linguistic influence in simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children: a meta-analysis

Although cross-linguistic influence at the level of morphosyntax is one of the most intensively studied topics in child bilingualism, the circumstances under which it occurs remain unclear. In this meta-analysis, we measured the effect size of cross-linguistic influence and systematically assessed its predictors in 750 simultaneous and early sequential bilingual children in 17 unique language combinations across 26 experimental studies. We found a significant small to moderate average effect size of cross-linguistic influence, indicating that cross-linguistic influence is part and parcel of bilingual development. Language dominance, operationalized as societal language, was a significant predictor of cross-linguistic influence, whereas surface overlap, language domain and age were not. Perhaps an even more important finding was that definitions and operationalisations of cross-linguistic influence and its predictors varied considerably between studies. This could explain the absence of a comprehensive theory in the field. To solve this issue, we argue for a more uniform method of studying cross-linguistic influence.

Transcultural and familial factors in bilingualism and language transmission: A qualitative study of maternal representations of French-Maghrebi Arabic bilingual children

This qualitative exploratory study examined transcultural and familial factors involved in bilingualism and minority language transmission among French and Arabic-speaking children. Participants included 30 children aged 4 to 6 years, born in France, and their bilingual French-Maghrebi Arabic-speaking parents. Children’s bilingual language profiles were assessed with the ELAL Scale for Maghrebi Arabic (minority language) and the Neel Scale for French (majority language). Mothers participated in qualitative interviews about cultural and language practices and representations. Interview contents were compared with the children’s language profiles. Results indicated that parents closely associated the transmission of the Arabic language with their cultural heritage transmission. The parents of fluent bilinguals had a strong desire to transmit the minority language. Mothers of minority language dominant bilingual children reported little perception of change in their lives since migration. Half of the mothers of majority language dominant bilingual children reported relationship or emotional difficulties with their children. Four minority language transmission types were identified: direct parent-child transmission; indirect transmission through private classes; indirect transmission through visits to family in the parents' native countries; and alternative transmission by another family member. Direct parent-child transmission was most frequent among the fluent bilinguals. Families' processes of hybridity were related to language transmission and bilingual development of children. Parental cultural affiliations to native country were related to minority language transmission. Perception of change since migration and affiliation to host country may also play a role in harmonious bilingual development. Moreover, the quality of family relationships can affect minority language transmission.

Chinese Australian Children’s Shared Reading Experiences at Home and in Preschools: A Case Study on Parents and Educators’ Attitudes and Practices

This case study investigates two Chinese children’s shared reading experiences in both home and preschool contexts. The parents and the educators were interviewed about their general attitudes and practices relating to shared reading for promoting the Chinese children’s bilingual development. Detailed observations were undertaken to record the parents and the educators’ interactions with the children during shared reading. The language use of the parents and the educators was analyzed with systemic functional linguistic theories. The findings demonstrate significant differences between the two cases, although the two children shared the same cultural and language learning background. The educators played a critical role in shaping the children’s shared reading experiences in the preschool and the nature of educator–parent cooperation. The mothers provided rich language learning opportunities for their children through active interactions in shared reading; however, the positive home learning experiences could not contribute to the children’s language learning in their preschools without effective educator–parent cooperation. This study suggests there are significant opportunities and strategies for the parents and the educators to capitalize on the educational functions of shared reading for facilitating Chinese children’s bilingual development based on mutual understanding and close cooperation.