The Reformist Commons

Within ‘The Reformist Commons’, the author establishes the views of a wide range of reformist theorists. This reformist approach to the commons combines liberal, social democratic, socialist and revolutionary elements in multiple variants. In the context of Benkler’s three basic future scenarios for the com­mons the author goes onto critically engage with the work of a number of thinkers who have further argued for the autonomisation of commons-based peer production in such models as the green governance (David Bollier and Silke Helfrich) and collaborative commons (Jeremy Rifkin) and platform cooperativism (Trebor Scholz) . Also discussed are Bauwens and Kostakis’s model of open cooperativism incorporating the ecological model of Design Global Manufacture, cosmolocalism and a partner state abetting commons-based peer production, Adam Arvidsson and Nicolai Peiterson’s ‘productive publics’ and digital distributism (Douglas Rushkoff). The author concludes with Erik Olin Wright’s arguments for how institutional space might be freed up for strategic action towards a commons-orientated transition. Wright’s perspective, the author argues offers the most holistic political alternative by integrating the self-instituting power of the people into a strategic pluralism based on multiple pathways of social empowerment, embodied in a variety of structural transformations. This may function as an institutional multi-format for the various reformist approaches advocated by the other thinkers.

Taking the High Road in Life

This chapter addresses “strategic pluralism,” or the fact that multiple behavioral strategies exist in most life domains. Dark strategies, which focus on selfish approaches to advancing one’s own goals, are described from an evolutionary perspective. Costs and benefits of such strategies are presented. Other-oriented strategies to life are also presented, so that a side-by-side comparison can be made by the reader. Bad-mouthing others in one’s social sphere is used as an example of a dark strategy. Alternative strategies for dealing with others, focusing on mutual respect and “taking the high road,” are also discussed in detail. This chapter is about taking the high road in life; taking the high road is seen as consistent with the goals of positive psychology.

Concluding Remarks on Linguistic Equality, Strategic Pluralism, and Linguistic Justice

Since equality is a foundation of liberalism and a moral norm, the value of linguistic equality is easily taken for granted. This chapter offers a characterization of linguistic equality as it is claimed and practiced in bilingual and multilingual jurisdictions today. It argues that shallow equality must not be confused with equality that is difference-blind and universal. Both symbolic jurisprudence and shallow equality are properties of a policy of strategic pluralism. The symbolic nature of official language law and the shallow character of linguistic equality do not prevent official multilingualism from serving legitimate goals. Official multilingualism is not morally superior to official monolingualism. Both are viable strategies for the survival of a polity. Although this book has been primarily concerned with the descriptive and analytical questions of how to make sense of official multilingualism, it concludes with some insights that may illuminate normative questions about linguistic justice.

Shallow Equality and Symbolic Jurisprudence in Multilingual Legal Orders

This book offers a critical perspective to the proliferation of official multilingualism in the contemporary world. Through diachronic and synchronic comparisons, it shows that official multilingualism has become a norm in the political management of linguistic diversity, but actual practices vary according to sociohistorical contexts and current power dynamics. It explains such convergences and divergences using a theory of symbolic jurisprudence, which posits that official language law has served chiefly as a discursive resource for a range of political and economic functions, such as ensuring stability, establishing legitimacy, balancing rival powers, and harnessing trade opportunities. The book goes on to examine the practical impact of official multilingualism on public institutions and legal processes and the application of linguistic equality—frequently asserted in multilingual polities—on the ground. The study shows that serious pursuit of linguistic equality calls for elaborate administrative effort in public institutions and carries a potential to clash with existing legal practices (from legal drafting and interpretation, to language rights in trial proceedings). However, such changes—however extensive—hardly ever disrupt the status quo. The book further argues that linguistic equality as proclaimed and practiced in many polities today is shallow in character, and must not be confused with popular conceptions of equality. The book concludes that both symbolic jurisprudence and shallow equality are components of a policy of strategic pluralism that underlies official multilingualism. Although official multilingualism can legitimately be used to pursue collective goals, it runs the underlying risks of disguising substantive inequalities and displacing more progressive efforts in social change.