Epistasis, aneuploidy, and gain-of-function mutations underlie the evolution of resistance to induced microtubule depolymerization

ABSTRACTMicrotubules, polymers of alpha- and beta-tubulin, are essential cellular components. When microtubule polymerization is hindered, cells are delayed in mitosis, but eventually they manage to proliferate with massive chromosome missegregation. Several studies have analyzed the first cell division upon microtubules impairing conditions. Here, we asked how cells cope on the long term. Taking advantage of mutations in beta-tubulin, we evolved in the lab for ∼150 generations 24 populations of yeast cells unable to properly polymerize microtubules. At the end of the evolution experiment, cells re-gained the ability to form microtubules, and were less sensitive to microtubule depolymerizing drugs. Whole genome sequencing allowed us to identify genes recurrently mutated (tubulins and kinesins) as well as the pervasive duplication of chromosome VIII. We confirmed that mutations found in these genes and disomy of chromosome VIII allow cells to compensate for the original mutation in beta-tubulin. The mutations we identified were mostly gain-of-function, likely re-allowing the proper use of the mutated form of beta-tubulin. When we analyzed the temporal order of mutations leading to resistance in independent populations, we observed multiple times the same series of events: disomy of chromosome VIII followed by one additional adaptive mutation in either tubulins or kinesins. Analyzing the epistatic interactions among different mutations, we observed that some mutations benefited from the disomy of chromosome VIII and others did not. Given that tubulins are highly conserved among eukaryotes, our results are potentially relevant for understanding the emergence of resistance to drugs targeting microtubules, widely used for cancer treatment.

Isolation of Two apsA Suppressor Strains in Aspergillus nidulans

Aspergillus nidulans reproduces asexually with single nucleated conidia. In apsA (anucleate primary sterigmata) strains, nuclear positioning is affected and conidiation is greatly reduced. To get further insights into the cellular functions of apSA, aconidial apsA strains were mutagenized and conidiating suppressor strains were isolated. The suppressors fell into two complementation groups, samA and samB (suppressor of anucleate metulae). samA mapped on linkage group I close to pyrG. The mutant allele was dominant in diploids homozygous for apsA. Viability of conidia of samA suppressor strains (samA −; apsA −) was reduced to 50% in comparison to wild-type conidia. Eighty percent of viable spores produced small size colonies that were temperature- and benomyl-sensitive. samB mapped to chromosome VIII and was recessive. Viability of conidia from samB suppressor strains (apSA −; samB−) was also affected but no small size colonies were observed. Both suppressors produced partial defects in sexual reproduction and both suppressed an apsA deletion mutation. In wild-type background the mutant loci affected hyphal growth rate (samA) or changed the colony morphology (samB) and inhibited sexual spore formation (samA and samB). Only subtle effects on conidiation were found. We conclude that both suppressor genes bypass the apsA function and are involved in microtubule-dependent processes.