Evolution of the long-term and estuary-scale phytoplankton patterns in the Scheldt estuary: the disappearance of net growth in the brackish region

Estuaries often show regions in which Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) accumulates. The location and magnitude corresponding to such accumulation result from a complex interplay between processes such as river flushing, salinity, nutrients, phytoplankton grazing, and the light climate in the water column. Of particular interest is the long-term evolution of the estuary-scale Chl-a distribution in the Scheldt estuary (Belgium/Netherlands) in spring. From 2004–2007, we observed a limited spring-bloom in the brackish region. This bloom intensified in 2008–2014 and disappeared after 2015. This long-term evolution in Chl-a has been linked to simultaneous long-term trends in the suspended particulate matter (SPM) distribution and the improvement of the water quality, which affects grazing of Chl-a by zooplankton. However, this hypothesis has not been systematically investigated. In this paper, we apply two approaches to test this hypothesis. In the first approach, we analyze long-term in situ observations covering the full estuary. These observations include the SPM concentration, zooplankton abundance, and other variables affecting the Chl-a concentration, and show a long-term estuary-scale evolution in not only the SPM distribution but also in zooplankton abundance, freshwater discharge, and maximum photosynthetic rate. In the second approach, we apply a model approach supported by these observations to determine which of the changed conditions may explain the observed change in Chl-a. Our results suggest that a change in SPM alone cannot explain the Chl-a observations. Instead, mortality rate and grazing by zooplankton mainly explains the long-term estuary-scale evolution of Chl-a in spring. Our results highlight that insight into the zooplankton dynamics is essential to understand the phytoplankton (cf. Chl-a) dynamics in the Scheldt estuary.

Micro-scale tearing mode turbulence in the diffusion region during macro-scale evolution of turbulent reconnection

<p>Magnetic reconnection is a key fundamental process in collisionless plasmas that explosively converts magnetic energy to plasma kinetic and thermal energies through a change of magnetic field topology in an electron-scale central region called the electron diffusion region. Past simulations and observations demonstrated that this process causes efficient energy conversion through the formation of multiple macro-scale or micro-scale magnetic islands/flux ropes. However, how these different spatiotemporal scale phenomena are coupled is still poorly understood. In this study, to investigate the turbulent evolution of magnetic reconnection, we perform a new large-scale fully kinetic simulation of a thin current sheet considering a power-law spectrum of initial fluctuations in the magnetic field as frequently observed in the Earth’s magnetotail. The simulation demonstrates that during a macro-scale evolution of turbulent reconnection, the merging of macro-scale islands results in reduction of the rate of reconnection as well as the aspect ratio of the electron diffusion region. This allows the repeated, quick formation of new electron-scale islands within the electron diffusion region, leading to an efficient energy cascade between macro- and micro-scales. The simulation also demonstrates that a strong electron acceleration/heating occurs during the micro-scale island evolution within the EDR. These new findings indicate the importance of non-steady features of the EDR to comprehensively understand the energy conversion and cascade processes in collisionless reconnection.</p>