Fundamentals of Rock Physics

Rock physics encompasses practically all aspects of solid and fluid state physics. This book provides a unified presentation of the underlying physical principles of rock physics, covering elements of mineral physics, petrology and rock mechanics. After a short introduction on rocks and minerals, the subsequent chapters cover rock density, porosity, stress and strain relationships, permeability, poroelasticity, acoustics, conductivity, polarizability, magnetism, thermal properties and natural radioactivity. Each chapter includes problem sets and focus boxes with in-depth explanations of the physical and mathematical aspects of underlying processes. The book is also supplemented by online MATLAB exercises to help students apply their knowledge to numerically solve rock physics problems. Covering laboratory and field-based measurement methods, as well as theoretical models, this textbook is ideal for upper-level undergraduate and graduate courses in rock physics. It will also make a useful reference for researchers and professional scientists working in geoscience and petroleum engineering.

The effect of lateral variations in Earth structure on Last Interglacial sea level

It is generally agreed that the Last Interglacial (LIG; ~130-115ka) was a time when global average temperatures and global mean sea level were higher than they are today. However, the exact timing, magnitude, and spatial pattern of ice melt is much debated. One difficulty in extracting past global mean sea level from local observations is that their elevations need to be corrected for glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), which requires knowledge of Earth’s internal viscoelastic structure. While this structure is generally assumed to be radially symmetric, evidence from seismology, geodynamics, and mineral physics indicates that large lateral variations in viscosity exist within the mantle. In this study, we construct a new model of Earth’s internal structure by converting shear wave speed into viscosity using parameterisations from mineral physics experiments and geodynamical constraints on Earth’s thermal structure. We use this 3D Earth structure, which includes both variations in lithospheric thickness and lateral variations in viscosity, to calculate the first 3D GIA prediction for LIG sea level. We find that the difference between predictions with and without lateral Earth structure can be meters to 10s of meters in the near field of former ice sheets, and up to a few meters in their far field. We demonstrate how forebulge dynamics and continental levering are affected by laterally varying Earth structure, with a particular focus on those sites with prominent LIG sea level records. Results from three 3D GIA calculations show that accounting for lateral structure acts to increase local sea level by up to ~1.5m at the Seychelles and minimally decrease it in Western Australia. We acknowledge that this result is only based on a few simulations, but if robust, this shift brings estimates of global mean sea level from these two sites into closer agreement with each other. We further demonstrate that simulations with a suitable radial viscosity profile can be used to locally approximate the 3D GIA result, but that these radial profiles cannot be found by simply averaging viscosity below the sea level indicator site.

An integrated thermo-compositional model of the African cratonic lithosphere from gravity and seismic data

<p>The presented model describes the lithospheric state of the cratonic regions of Africa in terms of temperature, density and composition based on joint analysis of gravity and seismic data. In addition, a new model of depth to the Moho was calculated from available seismic data. It was then used in combination with data on topography, sediments, and deep mantle anomalies to obtain residual mantle gravity and residual topography. These residual fields were corrected for thermal effects based on S-wave tomography and mineral physics constraints, assuming a juvenile mantle. Afterwards, the thermally corrected fields are jointly inverted to uncover potential compositional density variations. Following the isopycnic hypothesis, negative variations in cratonic areas are interpreted to be caused by iron depletion. Adapting the initially juvenile mantle composition allows to iteratively improve the thermal and compositional variations, culminating in a self-consistent model of the African lithosphere. Deep depleted lithospheric roots exist under the Westafrican, northern to central Congo, and Zimbabwe Cratons. The temperatures in these areas range from below 800 °C at 100 km depth to 1200 °C at 200 km depth. Higher temperatures and absence of depletion at depths below 100 km in wide areas of the eastern to southern Congo and the Kaapvaal Cratons indicate a thinner and strongly reworked lithosphere.</p>

A constraint to thermal conductivity of Earth’s core and CMB heat flow by assessment on a stable region of Earth’s core

<p>It is still controversial for an emergence of a stable region at the top of Earth’s core in theoretical modeling because both thermal conductivity of Earth’s core and heat flow across the core-mantle boundary (CMB) have not been clearly constrained from mineral physics and geophysical observations, ranging 20 to 220 W/m/K for the thermal conductivity (denoted as ) and 5 to 20 TW for the present-day CMB heat flow (denoted as Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub>). In this study, in order to resolve these uncertainties, we try to constrain the values of thermal conductivity of Earth’s core and the present-day CMB heat flow by requiring continuous generation of geomagnetic field in addition to existence of a stable region at the top of present Earth’s core using a one-dimensional thermal and compositional evolution model.  </p><p>Numerical experiments for various values of  and Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub> show that the solutions satisfying both long-term magnetic field generation and emergence of a stable region is possible only when  is larger than 40 W/m/K and Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub> is less than 18.5 TW. The specific required value of depends on Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub>. If the expected CMB heat flow would be as large value as 17.5 TW, which is suggested by the recent studies on the core evolution theory (e.g., Labrosse, 2015),  should be a high value such as about 212 W/m/K to satisfy our requirements. The thickness of an expected stable region would be about 30 km in this case. In contrast, when Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub> is as small as that derived from numerical mantle convection models (e.g., 10 TW; Nakagawa and Tackley, 2010), the required value of  decreases to 110 W/m/K. In this case, a stable region extends about 75 km thickness below CMB.</p><p>If the requirements assumed in this study is confirmed by certain geophysical observations and/or Q<sup>P</sup><sub>CMB</sub> can be restricted more precisely with some methods, our assessment scheme would be useful for evaluations of the radial convective structure of Earth’s core and for further constraint of the value of thermal conductivity of Earth’s core.</p>

Mineralogy in Independent Ukraine (1991-2021)

This article discusses the state of mineralogical research in independent Ukraine in the period from 1991 to 2021. The main achievements in various Earth sciences disciplines, including regional, systematic and genetic mineralogy, the chemistry and physics of minerals, mineralogical crystallography, bio- and nanomeralogy, experimental, space and applied mineralogy, and technical studies are considered. Four world-famous research groups and disciplines are notable. They are: i) regional and mineralogical led by academician Yevhen Lazarenko, ii) thermobarogeochemical studies led by professor Mykola Yermakov, iii) crystal chemistry led by academician Oleksandr Povarennykh, and iv) mineral physics led by professors Ivan Matyash, Oleksiy Platonov, and Arkady Tarashchan. Problems facing mineralogy including personnel, scientific, and applied are briefly discussed in the "Conclusion" section.

Hydration and Dehydration in Earth's Interior

Hydrogen and deuterium isotopic evidence indicates that the source of terrestrial water was mostly meteorites, with additional influx from nebula gas during accretion. There are two Earth models, with large (7–12 ocean masses) and small (1–4 ocean masses) water budgets that can explain the geochemical, cosmochemical, and geological observations. Geophysical and mineral physics data indicate that the upper and lower mantles are generally dry, whereas the mantle transition zone is wetter, with heterogeneous water distribution. Subducting slabs are a source of water influx, and there are three major sites of deep dehydration: the base of the upper mantle, and the top and bottom of the lower mantle in addition to slabs in the shallow upper mantle. Hydrated regions surround these dehydration sites. The core may be a hidden reservoir of hydrogen under the large water budget model. ▪ Earth is a water planet. Where and when was water delivered, and how much? How does water circulate in Earth? This review looks at the current answers to these fundamental questions. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Volume 49 is May 2021. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Deep mantle melting, global water circulation and its implications for the stability of the ocean mass

Oceans on Earth are present as a result of dynamic equilibrium between degassing and regassing through the interaction with Earth’s interior. We review mineral physics, geophysical, and geochemical studies related to the global water circulation and conclude that the water content has a peak in the mantle transition zone (MTZ) with a value of 0.1–1 wt% (with large regional variations). When water-rich MTZ materials are transported out of the MTZ, partial melting occurs. Vertical direction of melt migration is determined by the density contrast between the melts and coexisting minerals. Because a density change associated with a phase transformation occurs sharply for a solid but more gradually for a melt, melts formed above the phase transformation depth are generally heavier than solids, whereas melts formed below the transformation depth are lighter than solids. Consequently, hydrous melts formed either above or below the MTZ return to the MTZ, maintaining its high water content. However, the MTZ water content cannot increase without limit. The melt-solid density contrast above the 410 km depends on the temperature. In cooler regions, melting will occur only in the presence of very water-rich materials. Melts produced in these regions have high water content and hence can be buoyant above the 410 km, removing water from the MTZ. Consequently, cooler regions of melting act as a water valve to maintain the water content of the MTZ near its threshold level (~ 0.1–1.0 wt%). Mass-balance considerations explain the observed near-constant sea-level despite large fluctuations over Earth history. Observations suggesting deep-mantle melting are reviewed including the presence of low-velocity anomalies just above and below the MTZ and geochemical evidence for hydrous melts formed in the MTZ. However, the interpretation of long-term sea-level change and the role of deep mantle melting in the global water circulation are non-unique and alternative models are reviewed. Possible future directions of studies on the global water circulation are proposed including geodynamic modeling, mineral physics and observational studies, and studies integrating results from different disciplines.