5. Steam and Iron

From 1850, the issue of slavery’s future affected nearly every aspect of American politics and government. That same decade also witnessed a virtual technological revolution that affected large segments of American society and also transformed the tools of war. ‘Steam and iron: the Civil War navy (1850–1865)’ describes the introduction of new technology at sea during the Civil War, including steam propulsion, iron armor, and exploding shells fired from ever-larger naval guns, many of them rifled, which dramatically increased both range and accuracy. There was also significant enlargement of the Union navy both in ships and the enlisted force, which allowed the U.S. Navy to play an essential role in Union victory.

4. A Constabulary Navy

After 1820, the day-to-day duties of the United States Navy involved dealing with smugglers, pirates, and the illegal slave trade and so deploying the large ships of the line was deemed unnecessary. Also, the successful completion of treaties with both England and Spain demilitarized the Great Lakes and stabilized the country’s southern border, easing concerns about a future foreign war. ‘A constabulary navy: pirates, slavers, and manifest destiny (1820–1850)’ describes the peacetime navy activities carried out by small squadrons of sloops and schooners acting as a constabulary force on distant stations abroad, mainly in the Mediterranean, but also in the West Indies, off Africa, in the Pacific, off Brazil, and in the East.

1. An Ad Hoc Navy

‘An ad hoc navy: the Revolutionary War (1775–1783)’ describes the Patriots’ response to the British Royal Navy strongholds in Boston and New York and the role of armed vessels during the Revolutionary War. It begins with George Washington’s attempts to threaten the British supply line using boats. The Continental Navy was founded on October 13, 1775, but the new program could hardly challenge the Royal Navy. With the exception of John Paul Jones, the Continental Navy proved mostly disappointing. The United States won its independence largely because the determination of the Patriot forces outlasted the British willingness to fight—and to pay for—a war three thousand miles away.

10. The U.S. Navy in the Twenty-First Century

The dissolution of the Soviet Union did not erase the need for a global U.S. Navy, as events in the Middle East and elsewhere provoked serial crises that led to the dispatch of U.S. naval combat groups to various hot spots around the world. ‘The U.S. Navy in the twenty-first century’ explains how the U.S. Navy continues to fulfill many of its historic missions—suppressing pirates, protecting trade, and pursuing drug runners. It is also a potent instrument of American foreign policy and a barometer of American concern. In addition to its deterrent and peacekeeping roles, the U.S. Navy also acts as a first responder to natural or man-made disasters that call for humane intervention.

8. The Two-Ocean Navy

Europe went back to war in 1939 and on July 19 1940, the U.S. Congress passed the Two-Ocean Navy Act, the largest naval appropriation in American history, which expanded the U.S. Navy by more than seventy per cent in preparation for the United States entry into the war. ‘The two-ocean navy: the U.S. Navy in World War II (1939–1945)’ outlines the key battles fought by the U.S. Navy: in the Pacific from 1941–43, in the Mediterranean from 1943–44, the Central Pacific drive from 1943–44, the D-Day landings in 1944, and the ferocious battles with the Japanese at Iwo Jima and Okinawa that ended the war.

6. The Doldrums and The New Navy (1865–1900)

‘The doldrums and the new navy (1865–1900)’ describes the period after the end of the Civil War: an era of swift retrenchment with little forward progress. When the Civil War ended, the U.S. Navy boasted 671 warships, yet within a decade, all but a few dozen had been sold off, scrapped, or placed in ordinary—mothballed for a future crisis. The concept of a peacetime standing navy was finally embraced with Congressional approval for new battleships in 1890. The war with Spain in 1898 also resulted in the United States assuming significant authority on Cuba and gaining control of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Wake Island.

9. Confronting the Soviets

At the end of World War II, the U.S. Navy was more than twice as large as all the rest of the navies of the world combined. The inevitable contraction that followed was less draconian than after previous wars because of the almost immediate emergence of the Cold War. ‘Confronting the Soviets: the Cold War navy (1945–1975)’ explains that while deterring a Soviet missile strike remained a primary mission of all of America’s services throughout the Cold War, the United States also confronted a series of smaller wars around the world. These included the Korean War, unrest in the Middle East, the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Vietnam War, 1965–74.

3. An American Navy Confirmed

When America declared war against the British in 1812, most U.S. Navy ship captains hoped to conduct independent cruises against British commerce, but John Rodgers lobbied successfully for concentrating much of America’s naval power into one squadron under his command. After an unsuccessful campaign, the meagre forces were then scattered across the seas, leading to a number of individual ship-to-ship engagements between American and British frigates that greatly boosted American morale. ‘An American navy confirmed: the War of 1812’ also describes the strategic victories on Lake Erie and Lake Champlain and the enthusiasm after the war ended in 1914 for the establishment of a Board of Navy Commissioners and increase in the navy’s resources.

2. Establishing an American Navy

With independence secured, the American navy ceased to exist. The 1787 Constitution gave Congress the authority to provide and maintain a navy, but it was not until the emergence of Barbary threats to American shipping in the Mediterranean that the need for a standing navy was accepted. The order for six large frigates was authorized and then for further smaller ships during the Quasi War (1798–1801) against the French in the Caribbean. ‘Establishing an American navy: the Age of Sail (1783–1809)’ outlines the role of the U.S. Navy during the Anglo–French conflict, as well as the development of the gunboat navy during Jefferson’s second term to enforce his unpopular trading embargo.

7. A Navy Second to None

The U.S. Navy thrived during the Theodore Roosevelt administration with several new battleships commissioned—the Great White Fleet—and the construction of the Panama Canal, which opened in 1914 just as Europe was tumbling into war. ‘A navy second to none: the U.S. Navy in World War I (1900–1939)’ describes the battles between the Allied and German navies and dramatic changes in ship design that redefined the index of naval power, including Britain’s development of the Dreadnought. It also outlines the impacts of the 1916 Big Navy Act, the 1922 Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty, and the 1934 Vinson–Trammel Act that overturned the interwar cutbacks.