1. Crossing languages

What is translation? Is translation any different from communication in general? ‘Crossing languages’ considers the range of ways of doing things with words that can be thought of as translation, including from one foreign language to another, but also less obvious examples such as from technical jargon into common language. Firstly, translation does not simply jump from one language to another—there is a no-man’s land called ‘translationese’, which is a blend of two languages. Secondly, all translation involves diplomacy, mediation, and the avoidance of conflict. Thirdly, every translation is a crowd translation, drawing on more than one source text and different people’s expectations. But this is just the beginning.

6. Words in the world

Translation happens everywhere all the time. But when it comes to the public and commercial world of printed books, political documents, diplomatic negotiations, business transactions, and world news, translation is strictly limited. Official rules and market forces combine to determine who can do it, how it is done, and which languages it involves. ‘Words in the world’ looks at translation in the international book trade, in official organizations such as the United Nations and the European Union, and in mainstream global news. It also considers how computers are used for translation and how the internet has allowed crowd translation to flourish.

2. Definitions

There are simple and complex reasons why there is no exact translation of ‘translation’. The simple reason is that there is no exact translation of any word and the complex reason is that because the activities we can call ‘translation’ are so varied, the word ‘translation’ keeps having to stretch or shrink to fit them. ‘Definitions’ considers other words used for re-stating and re-writing: paraphrase, interpreting, kanbun-kundoku, exprimere, and tarjama. It concludes that translation is not the same as communication. Instead, it is part of communication. We reach for translation when we encounter an obstruction to understanding, realizing that the words that confront us are not entirely within our grasp.

3. Words, contexts, and purposes

Does translation translate the meanings of words? The relationship between words and meanings is very complex. ‘Words, contexts, and purposes’ explains that there are many aspects of the meanings of words from propositional meaning and prototypes to expressive meaning and connotational meaning. Even within a language a word’s meanings shift as it is used in different circumstances; when it is translated into another language more radically different meanings will appear. Words need to be placed in context and the purpose of the translation is crucial too. Purpose influences what particular kind of freedom or closeness a translation pursues.

7. Translational literature

‘Literature’ is often attached to a region of the world and its culture. But what if there are other ways of configuring the global geography of imaginative writing? ‘Translational literature’ looks at multilingual writing and the forms and influences traversing languages. It shows that the inherent translationality of literary writing creates particular difficulties but also opportunities for the literary translator. Many think that no translation can ever be as good as the original text, but there is a literature of translation made up of works which grow as they are translated, developing new complexity and power. Theatre in translation is also discussed considering what the future might hold for translation.

4. Forms, identities, and interpretations

‘Forms, identities, and interpretation’ first looks at icons and how shapes and images are used in sign systems to create simple, international languages. It then considers the organizational elements of language in comics, graphic novels, and poetry. The acts of reading and interpreting and judging and rewording that make up translation all play a part in defining the identity that the translation will represent. Inevitably, the translator will draw out some aspects more than others. The translation’s context and purpose have a decisive influence on these processes. Finally, it looks at how translation and interpretation are closely intertwined. Translations incorporate interpretations and also provoke them.

5. Power, religion, and choice

Translation errors, or mere differences, do not matter much in themselves. Their effects depend on their interpretation and use. ‘Power, religion, and choice’ considers how translation relates to power and discusses the translation of English Bibles and how Catholic versions differ markedly in their choice of words from Protestant and Anglican ones. Censorship affects the styles of authors and translators who write with an awareness of what their readers and literary authorities are likely to want. There is also a burden on translators who can make powerful choices—those that can promote one way of using a language over another and may help new words come into a language.