First-order linkage analysis (Frequently Applied Designs)

First-order linkage analyses (Schulz, 2008) employ individual survey data weighted by aggregated content data and are generally used to investigate media effects on public opinion. In contrast to experiments, their outcomes are highly generalizable since they allow to grasp what kind of content people encounter in a naturalistic setting (Barabas & Jerit, 2009), with which frequency and intensity, and how it triggers a particular reaction, attitude change, knowledge gain or behavior. First-order linkage analyses often employ manual and automated content analysis, descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. When using panel data, they are furthermore able to identify within-individual changes in attitudes and behaviors (e.g. Takens et al., 2015). Field of application/theoretical foundation: Linkage analyses have extensively been used in the fields of political communication and public opinion, EU studies and media and political psychology. Studies that employed first-order linkage analyses are concerned with theories of agenda setting (Erbring et al., 1980), visibility, priming and media attention on public opinion dynamics (e.g. Bos et al., 2011); news media tone (Hopmann et al., 2010), or the impact of exposure to counter-attitudinal views through the media (Matthes, 2012) on voting decisiveness and behavior. Framing studies or studies focusing on journalistic styles have also made extant use of linkage analysis (e.g. Jebril et al., 2013; Schuck et al., 2014) (see chapter Content Analysis in Mixed Method approaches for a detailed account of uses, applications and advantages of using linkage analyses). References Barabas, J., & Jerit, J. (2009). Estimating the Causal Effects of Media Coverage on Policy-Specific Knowledge. American Journal of Political Science, 53(1), 73–89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2008.00358.x Boomgaarden, H. G., Van Spanje, J., Vliegenthart, R., & De Vreese, C. H. (2011). Covering the crisis: Media coverage of the economic crisis and citizens’ economic expectations. Acta Politica, 46(4), 353–379. Bos, L., Van der Brug, W., & De Vreese, C. (2011). How the media shape perceptions of right-wing populist leaders. Political Communication, 28(2), 182–206. Castro Herrero, L., & Hopmann, D. N. (2017). The Virtue of Moderation: A Cross-National Analysis of Exposure to Cross-Cutting Information and Turnout. International Journal of Public Opinion Research. Castro, L., Nir, L., & Skovsgaard, M. (2018). Bridging Gaps in Cross-Cutting Media Exposure: The Role of Public Service Broadcasting. Political Communication, 1–24. De Vreese, C. H., Boukes, M., Schuck, A., Vliegenthart, R., Bos, L., & Lelkes, Y. (2017). Linking survey and media content data: Opportunities, considerations, and pitfalls. Communication Methods and Measures, 11(4), 221–244. Erbring, L., Goldenberg, E. N., & Miller, A. H. (1980). Front-page news and real-world cues: A new look at agenda-setting by the media. American Journal of Political Science, 16–49. Hopmann, D. N., Vliegenthart, R., De Vreese, C., & Alb\a ek, E. (2010). Effects of election news coverage: How visibility and tone influence party choice. Political Communication, 27(4), 389–405. Jebril, N., Albaek, E., & De Vreese, C. H. (2013). Infotainment, cynicism and democracy: The effects of privatization vs personalization in the news. European Journal of Communication, 28(2), 105–121. Matthes, J. (2012). Exposure to counterattitudinal news coverage and the timing of voting decisions. Communication Research, 39(2), 147–169. Schuck, A. R., Vliegenthart, R., & De Vreese, C. H. (2014). Who’s Afraid of Conflict? The Mobilizing Effect of Conflict Framing in Campaign News. British Journal of Political Science, 1–18. Schulz, W. (2008). Content analyses and public opinion research. The SAGE Handbook of Public Opinion Research, 348–357. Takens, J., Kleinnijenhuis, J., Van Hoof, A., & Van Atteveldt, W. (2015). Party leaders in the media and voting behavior: Priming rather than learning or projection. Political Communication, 32(2), 249–267. Vreese, C. H. D., & Semetko, H. A. (2004). News matters: Influences on the vote in the Danish 2000 euro referendum campaign. European Journal of Political Research, 43(5), 699–722. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0304-4130.2004.00171.x Table 1. Data matching in first-order linkage analyses Author(s) Relationship of theoretical interest Sample Time frame Content-analytical constructs Linkage strategy Boomgaarden et al., 2011 How exposure to media coverage of the 2008-2009 economic crisis affected expectations regarding the future development of the national economic situation (a) Predictions or expectations about the economic situations provided by articles of nine newspapers and items from 2 news bulletins in the Netherlands in the period between wave 1 and wave 2 of the survey below-mentioned. For w2 to w3, only the front pages of newspapers were coded. (b) 976 respondents of a three-wave panel survey conducted in the Netherlands between November 2008 to February 2009 Nov 2008- Feb 2009 “Expectation, assumption or prediction of the personal economic situation of the Dutch people/the Dutch economy” and whether these are negative, neutral or positive (Boomgaarden et al., 2011, p. 361) (1) Calculation of number of positive and negative economic expectations/assumptions/predictions per outlet (negative (-2), rather negative (-1), balanced (0), rather positive (1), positive (2)) for either the Dutch economy or the Dutch people. Negative evaluations are weighted twice since people tend to select negative information in greater numbers. (2) Each survey respondent’s frequency of use of each outlet is weighted (multiplied) by each outlet’s aggregated score for each relevant content characteristic outlined above, and regressed on people’s actual economic expectations for the country and for themselves. De Vreese et al. 2017 How exposure to economic news (visibility and tone) predicts respondents’ expectations about the state of the national economy in the coming 12 months (a) 1,211 hand-coded articles evaluating the state of the Dutch economy in Dutch national newspapers (b) Three-wave panel data from a surveyed representative sample of the Dutch population Feb-June 2015 (Negative, neutral or positive) tone towards the Dutch economy (1) The authors construct a variable in a content-analysed dataset measuring a tone scale per news article, ranging from -2 (completely negative) to 2 (completely positive) (2) Publication recency for each article (how close in time the article was published to when respondents were surveyed) and prominence of each article (operationalized as how long the article was compared to average article length) were used to create weighted measures, in order to test whether more recent and more lengthy evaluative articles had stronger effects on economic perceptions, as compared to an unweighted variable. (3) Observations at the article level were then aggregated at the wave-outlet level in a new dataset containing information on total number of articles with evaluations of the economy, tone, and the two weighted measures above-mentioned per outlet in each wave. (4) The linkage was done using the survey dataset. For each individual i in wave w a score of the amount of evaluative news (visibility), the positive, neutral or negative connotation of such news (tone) and the weighed variables (weighted tone by recency and prominence) was calculated for each newspaper they read on a weekly basis. The final computation can be illustrated as follows: For each individual i and wave w, (…) Where k stands for outlet, =1 if individual i reads outlet k and 0 otherwise, and j denotes article and Nkw is the set of articles with evaluative news published by outlet k in wave w. Yj can denote one of three possibilities: (…) Above, tj captures tone of an article, rj captures recency and lj is a measure of article length. (5) A series of OLS regression analyses were finally performed, with respondents’ expectations on the economy as dependent variable, exposure to media evaluations of the economy (tone), the weighted tone variables and lagged dependent variables as predictors. Castro, Nir & Skovsgaard (2018) How political interest and public service broadcasting strength impact cross-cutting, or counter-attitudinal media exposure; and whether public service media moderates the effect of political interest on cross-cutting exposure (a) 48,983 news stories from three newspapers and two TV news bulletins across 27 EU countries, collected by the European Election Media Study during the June 2009 European election campaign (May 14 to June 4 for some countries, up to May 17 to June 7 for others). Among such stories, 3,390 news evaluations on the national government’s record were identified and used to build the media content component of a cross-cutting media exposure measure. (b)Self-reported news media exposure and political interest from 27,079 individuals in 27 EU countries surveyed by the European Election Study consortium during the three weeks following the June 2009 European Parliament elections. May-June 2009 Tone toward the national government (positive (1), balanced/mixed (0), negative (–1) (1) A variable that accounts for the extent to which an individual approves (1) or disapproves (– 1) of the government’ s performance to date is built. (2) The mean of each national government’ s positive (1), balanced/mixed (0), or negative (– 1) evaluations found in each media outlet’ s news stories is computed. (3) Cross-cutting exposure is calculated by accounting for the absolute difference between each individual’ s approval of their government and the average degree for each media outlet this individual uses at least once a week, averaged by the number of news media outlets they follow. (4) Random-intercept regression models, using individual exposure to cross-cutting information as the dependent variable, and political interest, public service broadcasting strength (audience share) and an interaction between both as main independent variables, are run. This allows to account for the hierarchical structure of the data by decomposing individual and country-level variances, and also to explain the relationship between cross-cutting news media exposure and political interest, considering contextual interactions (i.e., with public service broadcasting strength). See Appendix B of the paper for the exact formula and a more detailed account of how scores are calculated for each individual and media outlet

Correlational linkage analysis (Frequently Applied Designs)

Correlational or second-order linkage analyses (Schulz, 2008) correlate content data points and survey data at the aggregate level. They are generally used to infer the impact of public opinion climate, the media context or media use on individual attitudes, cognitions and behaviors. Correlational linkage analyses make use of data collected at different points in time to be able to describe patterns of change and stability over time and to compensate for the reduced number of observations resulting from aggregating individual-level data. They often employ manual and automated content analysis, descriptive and inferential statistical analyses, and time series analysis. Field of application/theoretical foundation: Linkage analyses have extensively been used in the fields of political communication (Soroka, 2002), EU studies (Brosius et al., 2019a), and more recently, social media and social movements. Studies that employed second-order linkage analyses are related to theories of agenda setting (McCombs & Shaw, 1972), framing (Vliegenthart et al., 2008), or media bias and tone (Brosius et al., 2019b) (see chapter Content Analysis in Mixed Method approaches for a detailed account of applications and advantages of using linkage analyses). Example studies: In this data entry we describe two studies that regress survey data on media content data with additional weighs to better model news media effects. The first study (Boomgaarden & Vliegenthart, 2007) weigh media coverage of a particular topic (immigration) by issue prominence and circulation of the newspapers considered in the study. The second one (Vliegenthart et al., 2008) further introduces a publication recency moderator to account for how close in time a given news story was published from when survey data was collected and individuals may have been exposed to such piece of information. References Boomgaarden, H. G., & Vliegenthart, R. (2007). Explaining the rise of anti-immigrant parties: The role of news media content. Electoral Studies, 26(2), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2006.10.018 Brosius, A., van Elsas, E. J., & de Vreese, C. H. (2019a). Trust in the European Union: Effects of the information environment. European Journal of Communication, 34(1), 57–73. Brosius, A., van Elsas, E. J., & de Vreese, C. H. (2019b). How media shape political trust: News coverage of immigration and its effects on trust in the European Union. European Union Politics, 20(3), 447–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/1465116519841706 McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187. Schulz, W. (2008). Content analyses and public opinion research. The SAGE Handbook of Public Opinion Research, 348–357. Soroka, S. N. (2002). Issue attributes and agenda-setting by media, the public, and policymakers in Canada. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 14(3), 264–285. Vliegenthart, R., Schuck, A. R., Boomgaarden, H. G., & De Vreese, C. H. (2008). News coverage and support for European integration, 1990–2006. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 20(4), 415–439. Table 1. Data matching in correlational linkage analyses Author(s) Relationship of theoretical interest Sample Time frame Content-analytical constructs Linkage strategy Boomgarden & Vliegenthart (2007) News media reporting about immigration-related topics on aggregate share of vote intention for anti-immigrant parties (a) 157,968 articles collected through computer-assisted analysis, dealing with immigration and published in the five most-read Dutch national newspapers (b) Monthly self-reports on vote intention toward anti-immigrant parties from surveyed representative samples of the Dutch population (c) Monthly number of people that moved to the Netherlands and unemployment rates available from the Dutch governmental statistical institute 1990-2002 Visibility of immigration-related topics in news (1) The authors calculate a visibility score per article by computing: (1.1.) an average person’s log probability that s/he is exposed to news about immigration through a given article. This is done by using the frequency with which this article mentions immigration-related topics (f(t,a), both in the headline (fh(t,a)), in which case the frequency is weighed by 8, and in the body of the text (fb(t,a)), in which case the frequency is multiplied by 2. (1.2.) 1.1. is weighed by circulation of the newspaper where the article is published (c(a)). (1.3.) 1.1. is weighed by whether the article is placed in the front page or other to account for how prominently the topic is featured (fp(a)). Notationally, the equation can be written as follows: (…) (2) In a second step, V(a) are aggregated for all articles in all outlets by month (the time unit to link content and survey data) (3) Final immigration visibility scores (independent variable) are linked to monthly percentage of people that reported intending to vote for an anti-immigration party (dependent variable) through time series analysis. The authors run ARIMA models, successively adding controls for extreme right leadership peaks (Fortuyn’s entrance in the political arena and assassination), immigration levels, unemployment rates, the interaction between the both and finally, the media visibility variables. Vliegenthart, Schuck, Boomgaarden, De Vreese (2008) How framing of EU news in terms of benefit and conflict explains public support for the EU (a) 329,746 articles that contained at least one reference to the European institutions in main newspapers of 7 EU countries (Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom) were computer-assisted content analysed to obtain data on EU media visibility. (b) 9,649 hand-coded articles that mentioned the EU at least twice (at least one of these references in the headline or in the lead of the article) were then analysed to investigate the framing of the EU. Approximately 50 articles per country were coded for each 6-month period. (c) Self-reports on EU support from the bi-annual standard Eurobarometer. 1990–2006 (a) News media attention/visibility of the EU (b) Presence of a benefit frame or a disadavantage frame in EU news coverage © Presence of a conflict framing in EU news coverage (1) Articles dealing with the EU (at least one reference) are weighed by prominence and publication recency as follows: Articles on the first page of a newspaper are counted twice as heavily as articles in the remainder of the newspaper; articles appearing in the month before a Eurobarometer survey was conducted are weighed six times, they are counted five times if appeared 2 months before, etc. The weighted EU visibility score is aggregated for each time period t in each country c. (2) Framing scores are then assigned to each article (benefit and disadvantage frames 0-2, conflict framing ranged from 0 to 3) (3) Mean framing scores per time period–country combination (fs(t,c)) are multiplied by visibility scores (vs(t,c)) to capture the overall salience of the frames (beyond its presence) as follows: (…) (4) OLS regressions with panel corrected standard errors are run with benefit, disadvantage and conflict framing as main independent variables, and aggregated-level support for the EU as dependent variable

Prejudgment of the accused (Justice and Crime Coverage)

In some legal systems, strong prejudicial reporting can be recognized as a reason for reduced sentences in trials (e.g. in Switzerland: BGer 6B_45/2014). It is argued that the accused has already been punished by the public pillory. This variable serves to capture the extent of the implicit or explicit references to the guilt of the accused before the end of the trial (Schulz 2002). Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable “prejudgment of the accused” is of particular relevance in the context of debates on media ethics and legal philosophy. With the use of this variable, the extent to which personal rights provisions of the defendant are respected in media coverage is discussed. Example study: Oehmer (work in progress) Information on Oehmer (work in progress) Author: Franziska Oehmer Research interest: The study focuses on three sets of questions concerning 1) the selection and representativeness of court reporting, 2) the information function of court reporting and 3) the presentation of court reporting. Object of analysis: court coverage in Swiss newspapers (Tagesanzeiger, NZZ, Neue Luzerner Zeitung, Südostschweiz, Blick, Gratiszeitung, 20Minuten) Time frame of analysis: January 2007 – December 2017 Codebook: available (see attachment) Info about variable Variable name/definition: prejudgment of the accused [Vorverurteilung des Angeklagten] Level of analysis: Actors in most covered court case in article Values: Keine Vorverurteilung: Über den Angeklagten wird nicht wertend berichtet. Indikatoren: Mutmasslicher Täter Implizite Vorverurteilung: Die Tatschuld wird implizit durch Begriffe, Wertungen oder Deutungen nahegelegt. Explizite Vorverurteilung: Die Tatschuld wird als erwiesen betrachtet. Der Angeklagt wird klar als Täter identifiziert. Indikatoren: Mörder, Täter Intercoder reliability: Holsti .88; Krippendorff’s Alpha: .56 (2 Coder) References Oehmer, Franziska. Die dritte Gewalt in den Medien. Eine repräsentative quantitative Inhaltsanalyse der Gerichtsberichterstattung Schweizer Medien (work in progress). [Justice in the media. A representative quantitative content analysis of court reporting in the Swiss media]. Schulz, U. (2002): Die rechtlichen Auswirkungen von Medienberichterstattung auf Strafverfahren. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. [The legal effects of media coverage on criminal proceedings].

Phase of the trial (Justice and Crime Coverage)

The variable “phase of a trial” records whether the phase before, during or after the trial is mainly covered in the reporting (vgl. Haney & Greene, 2004; Glark, 2015; Strother, 2017). Studies show that the media’s focus is mainly on the beginning (when the new information about the case has been introduced) and on the end of the trial and the possible emotional reactions to it, while the main trial is usually not or little covered (Vinson & Ertter, 2002; Haney & Greene, 2004). Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable serves - among other variables – as an indicator of the representativeness of judicial reporting. Example study: Haney & Greene (2004) Information on Haney & Greene (2004) Authors: Craig Haney, Susan Greene Research interest: The study evaluates aspects of newspaper reporting about death penalty cases and capital defendants. Object of analysis: “representative sample of local, mainstream (i.e., non-“tabloid”) newspaper coverage” (134) Time frame of analysis: not mentioned Codebook: not available Info about variable Variable name/definition: phase of the trial [Phase des Gerichtsprozesses] Level of analysis: article Operationalization/coding instructions: “Generally, the stage of the trial process at which the article was written was stated explicitly. Otherwise, it was inferred from the content of the article or by comparing the date of the article to others written about the same case.” (p.136) Values: pretrial guilt-phase penalty sentencing-phase post trial Intercoder reliability: Cronbach’s alpha of .73 across categories (5 Coder), not mentioned for individual category Reference Clark, T. S., Lax, J. R., & Rice, D. (2015). Measuring the political salience of Supreme Court cases. Journal of Law and Courts, 3(1), 37–65. Haney, C. & Greene, S. (2004). Capital constructions: Newspaper reporting in death penalty cases. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 4(1), 129–150. Strother, L. (2017). How expected political and legal impact drive media coverage of Supreme Court cases, Political Communication, 34(4), S. 571-589. Vinson, C. D., & Ertter, J. S. (2002). Entertainment or Education: How Do Media Cover the Courts? Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 7(4), S. 80–97.

Identifying news coverage (Justice and Crime Coverage)

Content analysis is often used to examine the extent to which the individual actors involved in the trial (especially the defendant) can be identified through the reporting, for example through full attribution of names, a detailed description of the person, his or her living circumstances and photos. Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable “identifying new coverage” is of particular relevance in the context of debates on media ethics and legal philosophy. This variable is used to examine the extent to which personal rights provisions are respected in media coverage. Example study: Oehmer (work in progress) Information on Oehmer (work in progress) Author: Franziska Oehmer Research interest: The research interest of the study focuses on three sets of questions concerning 1) the selection and representativeness of court reporting, 2) the information function of court reporting and 3) the presentation of court reporting. Object of analysis: court coverage in Swiss newspapers (Tagesanzeiger, NZZ, Neue Luzerner Zeitung, Südostschweiz, Blick, Gratiszeitung, 20Minuten) Time frame of analysis: January 2007 – December 2017 Info about variable Variable name/definition: identifying news coverage [Identifizierende Berichterstattung über Opfer und Angeklagten] Level of analysis: Actors in most covered court case in article Values: Keine identifizierende Berichterstattung. Indikator: alleinige Verwendung der Bezeichnungen Opfer, Angeklagter, ... Mittlere identifizierende Berichterstattung: Aussage ist dazu geeignet, dass das unmittelbare Umfeld die Person identifizieren kann, Indikator: Nennung des Vornamens und des Anfangsbuchstabens. Große identifizierende Berichterstattung: Aussage ist dazu geeignet, das Dritte die Person identifizieren können. Indikator: Nennung des vollen Namens, Nennung des Vornamens in Verbindung mit Nennung des Berufs, Wohnsitzes und Arbeitsplatzes, ... Intercoder reliability: Holsti .73; Krippendorff’s Alpha: .57 (2 Coder) Codebook: available (see attachment) References Oehmer, Franziska. Die dritte Gewalt in den Medien. Eine repräsentative quantitative Inhaltsanalyse der Gerichtsberichterstattung Schweizer Medien (work in progress). [Justice in the media. A representative quantitative content analysis of court reporting in the Swiss media].

Nationality (Justice and Crime Coverage)

The variable provides information on whether the nationality of the (alleged) victims and/or perpetrator is mentioned in connection with crimes and offences. Research shows that minorities are disproportionately more often depicted as perpetrators than as victims (Hestermann, 2010; Vinson & Ertter, 2002). Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable “nationality of the (alleged) victim or perpetrator” is of particular relevance in the context of debates on media ethics and legal philosophy. It is mainly used in the field of media effects research (stereotype and cultivation research, see Arendt, 2010). Example study: Hestermann (2010) Info about variable Variable name/definition: nationality [Nationalität] Level of analysis: mentioned (alleged) victim and perpetrator in the report Values: Nationality of the victim & perpetrator Nicht genannt Deutsch Ausländisch Ausdrücklich unbekannt Trifft nicht zu Intercoder reliability: Nationality of the victim 0.94; Nationality of the perpetrator 0.98 (2 Coder). What exact coefficient has been calculated has not been reported. Codebook: available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv941tf9.12 References Arendt, F. (2010). Cultivation effects of a newspaper on reality estimates, explicit and implicit attitudes. Journal of Media Psychology, 22, 147–159. Hestermann, T. (2010). Fernsehgewalt und die Einschaltquote: Welches Publikumsbild Fernsehschaffende leitet, wenn sie über Gewaltkriminalität berichten. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. [Television violence and ratings: Which picture of the audience leads television makers when they report on violent crime]. Vinson, C. D., & Ertter, J. S. (2002). Entertainment or Education: How Do Media Cover the Courts? Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics, 7(4), S. 80–97.

Legal are (Justice and Crime Coverage)

It is often assumed that judicial reporting is biased in favor of criminal offences and violent crimes and at the expense of administrative, civil or labor court cases (e.g., Delitz, 1989; Eberle 1996; Machill, Beiler & Hellmann, 2007). In order to be able to test this assumption, the variable “legal fields“ is used to categorize the judicial trial or case reported in the media. Field of application/theoretical foundation: The legal field serves - among other variables – as an indicator of the representativeness of judicial reporting. Thus, the results of the content analysis are often compared with extra-media data on the distribution of trials in different fields of law (Strother, 2017). Example study: Oehmer (work in progress) Information on Oehmer (work in progress) Research interest: The study focuses on three sets of questions concerning 1) the selection and representativeness of court reporting, 2) the information function of court reporting and 3) the presentation of court reporting. Object of analysis: court coverage in Swiss newspapers (Tagesanzeiger, NZZ, Neue Luzerner Zeitung, Südostschweiz, Blick, Gratiszeitung, 20Minuten) Time frame of analysis: January 2007 – December 2017 Codebook: available (see attachment) Info about variable: Variable name/definition: legal fields [Rechtsgebiete der berichteten Justizfälle] Level of analysis: most covered court case in article General coding instruction: The legal system is mostly characterized by a division of the legal fields into private law (or civil law) and public law. The following basic rule applies for the assignment to the legal areas: if only private individuals are involved, then it is private law (Code 10 ff.), if a public organization or a state is involved, then it usually refers to public law (Code 20 ff.). Unless otherwise stated, the following definitions are based on corresponding entries from the Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon. Springer, available at: https://wirtschaftslexikon.gabler.de/ (16.09.20) Variable name Values & coding instructions Rechtsgebiet des Prozesses 10 Privatrecht: Privatrecht umfasst alle Rechtssätze, die die rechtlichen Beziehungen der einzelnen zueinander nach dem Grundsatz der Gleichordnung regeln. Der Staat oder ein anderer hoheitlicher Träger sind hier nicht beteiligt. Codierhinweis: Dieser Code wird gewählt, wenn keine Spezialform (Code 11f) vorliegt. Dazu zählen folgende Rechtsgebiete: - Familienrecht - Erbrecht - Sachenrecht 11 Handelsrecht: Teilgebiet des Privatrechts. Handelsrecht ist das Sonderrecht des Kaufmanns. Die Vorschriften des Handelsrechts betreffen im Wesentlichen die Rechtsbeziehungen des Kaufmanns zu seinen Geschäftspartnern, die wettbewerbsrechtlichen und gesellschaftsrechtlichen Beziehungen zu anderen Unternehmern. Dazu zählen folgende Rechtsgebiete: - Kapitalmarktrecht, - Wettbewerbsrecht, - Versicherungsrecht - Patentrecht - Urheberrecht - Markenrecht 12 Arbeitsrecht: zählt überwiegend zum Privatrecht. Gesamtheit aller Rechtsregeln, die sich mit der unselbstständigen, abhängigen Arbeit befassen, d.h. der Arbeit, die von Personen geleistet wird, die in einem Betrieb eingegliedert fremdbestimmte Arbeit leisten und dabei an Weisungen hinsichtlich Art, Ausführung, Ort und Zeit der Arbeit gebunden sind. 13 Mietrecht 20 Öffentliches Recht: regelt, im Gegensatz zum Privatrecht, die Beziehungen des Einzelnen zum Staat und den Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts sowie der Träger öffentlicher Gewalt zueinander. Im öffentlichen Recht ist der Einzelne (anders als im Privatrecht) dem Staat untergeordnet. Der Staat oder ein Träger hoheitlicher Gewalt tritt mit Hoheitsgewalt auf (Forstmoser/Vogt 2012, S.118) Codierhinweis: Dieser Code wird gewählt, wenn keine Spezialform (Code 21f) vorliegt. 21 Verwaltungsrecht: Mit Verwaltungstätigkeit ist die Tätigkeit der öffentlichen Verwaltung gemeint. Die „öffentliche Verwaltung“ wird von den Einrichtungen der unmittelbaren und mittelbaren Staatsverwaltung (Bund, Ländern, Gemeinden, Gemeindeverbänden und sonstigen Körperschaften, Anstalten und Stiftungen des öffentlichen Rechts) gebildet (institutioneller Begriff). Quelle: Bader, Ronellenfitsch, 2016, § 1 Rn. 8-10.1). Dazu zählen u.a. folgende Rechstgebiete: - Verwaltungsgerichtsbarkeit - Bauplanung, Naturschutz - Ausländer, Staatsbürgerrecht - Beamten/Soldatenrecht - Schul/Hochschulrecht - Verkehrs/Wegerecht - Leistungs/Sozialrecht - Rundfunkrecht - Gewerbe/Lebensmittel - Waffenrecht - Kommunalrecht - Veranstaltungs-/Demonstrationsrecht - Wohnungsrecht 22 Verfassungsrecht: Rechtliche Grundordnung eines Staates, Gesamtheit der geschriebenen und ungeschriebenen Rechtssätze über die Bildung, den Aufgabenkreis und die Organisation der obersten Staatsorgane, das Verhältnis der einzelnen Staatsorgane zueinander, die staatlichen Aufgaben, den staatsrechtlichen Aufbau des Staates und die Rechte des Bürgers gegen den Staat (Grundrechte) (Quelle: http://wirtschaftslexikon.gabler.de/Archiv/4350/oeffentliches-recht-v5.html) 23 Steuerrecht: Gesamtheit der Rechtsnormen unserer Rechtsordnung, die sich - im weitesten Sinn - auf Steuern beziehen. Diese schaffen und regeln die Rechtsbeziehungen (Rechte und Pflichten) zwischen den Trägern der Steuerhoheit und den ihnen unterworfenen natürlichen und juristischen Personen. 24 Sozialrecht: Teilgebiet des öffentlichen Verwaltungsrechts. Das Sozialrecht soll zur Verwirklichung sozialer Gerechtigkeit und sozialer Sicherheit dienen. Dazu zählen folgende Rechtsgebiete: - Sozialgerichtsbarkeit - Unfallversicherung - Rentenversicherung - Krankenversicherung - Kriegsopferversorgung - Arbeitslosenversicherung - Kassenarztrecht 25 Internationales Recht 26 Strafrecht (hier auch Jugendstrafrecht): Inbegriff der Rechtsnormen, in denen die Voraussetzungen für die Straftat und ihre Rechtsfolgen festgelegt sind; umfasst i.w.S. auch das Strafverfahrensrecht, das der Durchsetzung des staatlichen Strafanspruchs dient. Strafrecht ist Teil des öffentlichen Rechts, was nach allen gängigen Differenzierungstheorien (Subordinationstheorie, Interessentheorie, neuere Subjektstheorie) deutlich nachweisbar ist. Codierhinweis: a) Beim Strafrecht sind aufgrund seiner zu erwartenden Sonderstellung in der Berichterstattung möglichst detaillierte Codes zu vergeben. b) Werden im Rahmen einer Verhandlung mehrere Delikte verhandelt, so wird das Delikt codiert, dem in der Berichterstattung der meiste Raum beigemessen wird. Werden sämtliche Delikte im gleichen Ausmass behandelt, so wird das Erstgenannte codiert. 27 Tötung 28 Körperverletzung 29 Raub 30 Sexualdelikte 31 Eigentumsdelikte 32 Gemeingefährliche Delikte 33 Rauschgiftdelikte 34 Delikte gegen die öffentliche Ordnung 35 Beleidigung 36 Amtsdelikte 37 Ordnungswidrigkeit 99) Sonstiges Intercoder reliability: Holsti .81; Krippendorff’s Alpha: .68 (2 Coder) References Delitz, J. (1989). Tagespresse und Justiz. Gerichtsberichterstattung als Vermittlung institutioneller Wirklichkeit. Hamburg. [Daily press and justice. Court reporting as a mediator of institutional reality.] Eberle, R. G. (1996). Verwaltungsgerichte in der Medienberichterstattung am Beispiel von Tageszeitungen in Hessen. Zeitschrift für Rechtssoziologie, 17(2), S. 300-309. [Administrative courts in media coverage using the example of daily newspapers in the federal state of Hesse.] Bader, J. & Ronellenfitsch, M. (2016). Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz: VwVfG. Beck. [Administrative Procedure Act] Forstmoser. P.& Vogt, H-U. (2012). Einführung in das Recht. 5. Vollständig überarbeitete Auflage. Stämpfli. [Introduction to law.] Machill, M., Beiler, M. & Hellmann, I. (2007). The selection process in local court reporting. Journalism Practice, 1(1), S. 62-81. Oehmer, Franziska. Die dritte Gewalt in den Medien. Eine repräsentative quantitative Inhaltsanalyse der Gerichtsberichterstattung Schweizer Medien (work in progress). [Justice in the media. A representative quantitative content analysis of court reporting in the Swiss media]. Strother, L. (2017). How expected political and legal impact drive media coverage of Supreme Court cases, Political Communication, 34(4), S. 571-589.

Sources & actors (Justice and Crime Coverage)

These variables are used to determine whose views and activities are covered in the reporting on justice. A distinction is made between the variable "actors", which is used to measure the description of acting persons, and the variable "source", that captures which persons have a direct or indirect quote. Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable serves - among other variables – as an indicator of the representativeness of judicial reporting. Example studies: Haney & Greene (2004); Oehmer (work in progress) Information on Haney & Greene (2004) Authors: Craig Haney, Susan Greene Research interest: The study evaluates aspects of newspaper reporting about death penalty cases and capital defendants. Object of analysis: “representative sample of local, mainstream (i.e., non-“tabloid”) newspaper coverage” (134) Codebook: not available Information on Oehmer (work in progress) Research interest: The research interest of the study focuses on three sets of questions concerning 1) the selection and representativeness of court reporting, 2) the information function of court reporting and 3) the presentation of court reporting. Object of analysis: court coverage in Swiss newspapers (Tagesanzeiger, NZZ, Neue Luzerner Zeitung, Südostschweiz, Blick, Gratiszeitung, 20Minuten) Time frame of analysis: January 2007 – December 2017 Codebook: available (see attachment) Info about variables Author(s) Level of analysis Operationalization/coding instructions Values Intercoder reliability Haney & Greene (2004) article Sources “We coded source attributions for information contained in the articles. Specifically, we examined whether the prosecution, defense, judges, or law enforcement (e.g., police), or the suspect/defendant or laypersons purporting to be knowledgeable about him or his crime(s) were specifically quoted or cited. For example: After allegedly stealing Schockley’s 1990 Buick station wagon and items from Schockley’s Lodi home, Hensley went to the Oasis bar on the outskirts of Stockton and picked up a 32-year-old prostitute, police said. (“Killing Suspect Caught,” 1992)“ (136) - Police/law enforcement - Prosecutors - Judges - Defense attorneys - Defendants - Lay witnesses - Prosecution Defense Cronbach’s alpha of .73 across categories (5 Coder), not mentioned for individual category Oehmer (work in progress) Actors in most covered court case in article Actors of the trial Only actors of the (dominant) trial described in the article are coded - i.e. actors involved in other processes are not considered here. Only those actors are coded who are described as actively acting. Simple statements such as "the verdict of the court" or "in the motion of the lawyers can be read that" does not qualify as actors. Decisive for the assignment to an actor is the role in the respective process: If, for example, a police officer is accused of abuse of authority, he is coded as the accused, not as an actor of the police. - Opfer - Angehörige der Opfer - Angeklagte(r) - Angehörige des/r Angeklagten - Akteure der Staatsanwaltschaft - Anwälte/ Verteidiger - Richter/ Spruchkörper - Gericht allgemein - Akteure der Polizei - Zeugen - Gutachter - Sonstiges Holsti .84; Krippendorff’s Alpha: .83 (2 Coder) References Haney, C. & Greene, S. (2004). Capital constructions: Newspaper reporting in death penalty cases. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 4(1), 129–150. Oehmer, Franziska. Die dritte Gewalt in den Medien. Eine repräsentative quantitative Inhaltsanalyse der Gerichtsberichterstattung Schweizer Medien (work in progress). [Justice in the media. A representative quantitative content analysis of court reporting in the Swiss media].

(Olympic) Sports (Sports Coverage)

The variable '(Olympic) sports' identifies (Olympic) sports that are the subject of communication. Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable can be used in all fields of sports communication, but is particularly interesting with regard to communication about the Olympic Games. It is based on the current list of Olympic sports (IOC, 2020a) and the list of sports recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC, 2020b). References/combination with other methods of data collection: The list on which the category is based can also be used in surveys. In this way, it is possible, for example, to investigate whether the perception of relevance of (certain) sports in the population correspond or differ from the relevance journalists attribute to (certain) sports by the extent of their reporting. Example study: In a study by Vögele and Schäfer (2020) on the use of content analyses in sports communication, the category was used in a slightly adapted form. They coded sports that were the subject of the respective content analyses. In this way, it was possible to determine which sports are in the focus of sports communication research (and which are not; RH=1.0). (Olympische) Sportarten In dieser Kategorie werden die Sportarten verschlüsselt, über die der Beitrag berichtet. Sind die Olympischen Spiele allgemein Gegenstand der Berichterstattung, sind die übergeordneten Ausprägungen „100“ (Sommerspiele) bzw. „200“ (Winterspiele) zu codieren. Werden im Beitrag keine Sportarten oder olympischen Sportereignisse thematisiert, wird „0“ codiert. Sonstige Sportarten werden mit „9999“ verschlüsselt. 000 keine (olympische) Sportart oder olympischen Sportereignisse thematisiert 1000 Olympische Sommerspiele 1010 American Football 1020 Automobilsport 1030 Badminton 1040 Bandy 1050 Baseball/Softball 1060 Basketball 1070 Beach Volleyball 1080 Bergsteigen 1090 Billard 1100 Bogenschießen 1110 Boules 1120 Bowling 1130 Boxen 1140 Bridge 1150 Cheerleading 1160 Cricket 1170 Fechten 1180 Floorball 1190 Flugsport 1200 Fußball 1210 Frisbee 1220 Gewichtheben 1230 Golf 1240 Handball 1250 Hockey 1260 Judo 1270 Kanusport 1271 Kanu Slalom 1272 Kanu Sprint 1280 Karate 1290 Kickboxen 1300 Korfball 1310 Lacrosse 1320 Leichtathletik 1330 Moderner Fünfkampf 1340 Motorbootsport 1350 Motorradsport 1360 Muaythai 1370 Netball 1380 Orientierungslauf 1390 Pelota 1400 Polo 1410 Radsport 1411 Bahnradsport 1412 BMX 1413 Mountain Bike 1414 Straßenradsport 1420 Racquetball 1430 Reitsport 1431 Dressurreiten 1432 Springreiten 1433 Vielseitigkeitsreiten 1440 Ringen 1441 Freistilringen 1442 Griechisch-römisches Ringen 1450 Rudern 1460 Rugby 1470 Rollsport 1471 Rollhockey 1472 Rollkunstlauf 1473 Inlineskaten 1474 Inlinehockey 1480 Sambo 1490 Schach 1500 Schießen 1510 Schwimmsport 1511 Freiwasserschwimmen 1512 Schwimmen (Bahn) 1513 Synchronschwimmen 1514 Rettungsschwimmen 1520 Segeln 1530 Skateboarding 1540 Sportklettern 1550 Surfen 1560 Taekwondo 1570 Tanzen 1580 Tauziehen 1590 Tennis 1600 Tischtennis 1610 Trampolinsport 1620 Turmspringen 1630 Turnsport 1631 Geräteturnen 1632 Rhythmische Sportgymnastik 1640 Triathlon 1650 Squash 1660 Sumoringen 1670 Unterwassersport 1680 Volleyball 1690 Wasserball 1700 Wasserski 1710 Wushu 2000 Olympische Winterspiele 2010 Biathlon 2020 Bobsport 2030 Curling 2040 Eishockey 2050 Eiskunstlauf 2060 Eisschnellauf 2070 Eisstock 2080 Nordische Kombination 2090 Rodeln 2100 Short Track 2110 Skeleton 2120 Ski Alpin 2130 Skibergsteigen 2140 Ski Freestyle 2150 Skilanglauf 2160 Skispringen 2170 Snowboard 9999 Sonstige Sportart References The International Olympic Committee (IOC) (2020a). Recognised federations. Abgerufen von https://www.olympic.org/recognised-federations The International Olympic Committee (IOC) (2020b). Sports. Abgerufen von https://www.olympic.org/sports Vögele, C. & Schäfer, M. (2020). Inhaltsanalysen in der Sportkommunikation. In F. Oehmer, S. H. Kessler, K. Sommer, E. Humprecht & L. Castro Herrero (Hrsg.), Handbook of Standardized Content Analysis: Applied Designs to Research Fields of Communication Science.

Benefit/risk framing (Technology Coverage)

In order to identify interpretative patterns in the media coverage of technology, researches apply the variable risk and benefit framing. Risk and Benefit Framing is being measured differently; some studies use one variable, other studies use several variables to measure it. Either way, the variable is used to investigate to what extent either risks or benefits dominate the discourse and thus whether a positive or negative impression of a technology is given. In addition, it is analyzed how benefits and risks are portrayed, for example with regards to specificity and magnitude (Strekalova 2015) or how the ratio of risks and benefits changes over time or differs among different media (Donk, Metag, Kohring, & Marcinkowski 2012). Field of application/theoretical foundation: The variable risk and benefit framing is often based on Entman’s framing approach, which is frequently applied in quantitative content analyses on various topics. In media content analyses, the framing concept, however, is understood and applied differently, which is the case also for the analysis of technology coverage. In addition to risk and benefit frames, thematic or issue frames are applied including risks and/or benefits as possible frames among others (e.g. Weaver et al. 2009). Yet, some analyses are based on the assumption that a frame is a specific, unique pattern of a text composed of several elements (Kohring & Matthes 2002; Matthes & Kohring 2008). These elements are (a) problem definition, (b) causal attribution of responsibility, (c) moral judgment of the protagonists and their actions, and (d) treatment recommendations (Entman 1993, p. 52). Following this inductive approach, these elements are coded as single variables. After coding, frames are identified statistically by testing for relational patterns between the frame elements (Kohring & Matthes 2002; Matthes & Kohring 2008). References/combination with other methods of data collection: In media effects research, it can be of interest whether the frames analyzed in the media coverage are recognized by recipients and how they affect their attitudes towards a topic, which can be tested by means of surveys or experiments among recipients. Example studies: Strekalova (2015); Donk et al. (2012) Information on Strekalova, 2015 Authors: Yulia A. Strekalova Research question/research interest: “How do elite and regional U.S. newspapers cover nanomedicine? How was the news about nanomedicine framed by the U.S. newspapers?” Object of analysis: U.S. newspapers (3 national quality newspapers: The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal; 3 regional newspapers: Los Angeles Times, The Boston Globe, The Houston Chronicle) Time frame of analysis: 1990-September 30, 2013 Information on Donk et al., 2012 Authors: André Donk, Julia Metag, Matthias Kohring, Frank Marcinkowski Research question/research interest: The framing of nanotechnology in German print media Object of analysis: 9 German daily newspapers and weekly magazines (Financial Times Deutschland, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Frankfurter Rundschau, Süddeutsche Zeitung, taz, Die Welt, Focus, Der Spiegel, die Zeit) Time frame of analysis: 2000 bis 2008 Codebook: placed at disposal Information about variable Authors Variable name/definition Level of analysis Values Scale level Reliability Strekalova (2015) Risk and Benefit Frames (in addition: magnitude and specificity of risks and benefits) article benefits only risks only benefits and risks no benefits or risks nominal intercoder reliability: .86 (range: .72-.95) Donk, Metag, Kohring & Marcinkowski (2012) Nanotechnology Frames: variables with frequency ≥5% for 7 categories representing 4 frame elements Categories for frame element “problem definition”: Main topic Evaluation of benefits Evaluation of risks Variables “main topic”: Scientific research medical implementation implementation in information and communication technology (ICT) economy overview of nanotechnology Variables “Evaluation of benefits”: medical benefits scientific benefits economic benefits Variables “Evaluation of risks”: Medical risks Categories for frame element “Causal attribution of responsibility”: Protagonist responsible for benefits Protagonist responsible for risks Variables “Protagonist responsible for benefits”: Scientist economic protagonist nanotechnology Variables “Protagonist responsible for risks”: Nanotechnology Category for frame element “Moral judgement”: Evaluation of nanotechnology Variables: Positive evaluation/acceptance negative evaluation/acceptance Category for frame element “Treatment recommendation”: Call for regulation/support Prospects Variables: Risk regulation Prospects Positive prospects article nominal R = .87 Pi = .79 References Strekalova, Yulia A. (2015): Informing Dissemination Research. In: Science Communication 37(2), 151–172. Donk, André; Metag, Julia; Kohring, Matthias; Marcinkowski, Frank (2012): Framing Emerging Technologies. In: Science Communication 34(1), 5–29. Further References Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43, 51­58. Kohring, M., & Matthes, J. (2002). The face(t)s of biotech in the nineties: How the German press framed modern biotechnology. Public Understanding of Science, 11, 143­154. Matthes, J., &, Kohring, M. (2008). The content analysis of media frames: Toward improving reliability and validity. Journal of Communication, 58, 258­279.