Migration, Modernization, and Social Change

Chapter 8 unlocks the inter-relationship between migration and modernization by analysing attitudinal changes associated with urban living such as attitudes towards gender division of labour, women’s higher education, and participation in the labour market, to generate broader understanding on women’s empowerment. It also assesses whether, how, and to what extent gender and generational relations are redefined and impacted in relation to migration. It does so by analysing gender roles, attitudes, and aspirations regarding major institutions and practices including marriage, divorce, dowry, and inheritance that govern gender relations. It presents the actual situation of the members of these families on each of these accounts to examine whether there is consistency between what they think and what they practice. In this process, it identifies the factors that are conducive towards progressive attitudes and practices, and those which impede progress, the key determinant of qualitative changes and a migrants’ prospects for a better future.

Impact of Urbanization on Health and Education

This chapter focuses on the qualitative changes in the lives of the city dwellers, particularly the poorer ones, regarding the scope for them to benefit from the city’s growing prosperity like their non-poor counterparts. It does so by examining the state of health and education of all. It estimates morbidity rates and highlights disease patterns to assess changes and identify the affected groups. To assess quality of health, it analyses their treatment-seeking behaviour, immunization of children, and whether the determinants of good health are changing over time. It examines changes in enrolment rates of children, adolescents and youth group, and gender parity at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Whether the quality of human capital has improved over time is also assessed by analysing the trends in adult literacy, educational attainment, and per capita expenditure in health and education in order to attain the main outcomes—equity and social inclusion.

Quality of Life

Chapters 6 focuses on the sustainability issues by examining whether the respondents’ access to and quality of basic amenities such as housing, water and sanitation, gas, electricity, and telecommunication has improved over time, as it is key to ensuring sustained development. Given that the results of the longitudinal survey presented in this book show that the poorer segments of Dhaka city reaped benefits of better livelihoods and incomes over the 20-year period between 1991 and 2010, it addresses the concerns raised by the second and third compelling questions. Are these benefits sustainable in the long run? Have these benefits brought qualitative changes creating scope for this group to have a stake in the city’s growing prosperity like their non-poor counterparts? It also addresses quality and equity issues central to the aim of meeting the Sustainable Development Goals and examines the types of changes and the challenges that need to be addressed.

Dynamics of Livelihoods, Income, and Poverty

Chapter 5 presents a systematic analysis of urban poverty by examining changes in the human-capital composition of the labour force, in the livelihoods of the respondents, and the level and composition of income for different occupational groups. It also identifies the determinants of household income with the help of a multivariate regression model, using the household-level data. Alongside, it examines the distribution of income over time, changes in the degree of inequality, and estimates the contribution of different sources of income to the income inequality with the help of the Gini decomposition analysis. It shows notable reduction in the incidence of moderate and extreme poverty in 2010. Also, it estimates changes in the incidence, intensity, and severity of poverty, identifying the correlates of poverty for Dhaka city in order to answer the question: is the poorer segment of the urban population benefitting from positive economic trends?

Better Lives and Better Incomes, but Slim Prospects for Shared Prosperity

Chapter 9 prepares a report card by highlighting the major findings covering each of the themes of the book: urban poverty, income growth, and inequality; migration, rural−urban linkage, and transformative potential; migration, better livelihoods, and inclusive development; quality of life and sustainability matters; urbanization and the demographic dividend; and migration and modernization. It highlights the progress made in the 20-year period and the gaps and challenges. Opportunities and challenges are then discussed critically through policy lenses. Based on the policy analysis as well as lessons from better practice analysis across the globe, it recommends appropriate measures and strategies to make Dhaka a more prosperous, sustainable, inclusive, and liveable city. Finally, it sums up the major findings in response to the compelling questions regarding scope for the poorer segment of urban residents to reap benefits of better lives, better incomes and claim equal share in the city’s growing prosperity like their non-poor counterparts in the concluding remarks.

Migration and Occupational Changes

The major focus of this chapter is the occupational changes that occurred due to migration, especially on whether the poorer migrants have been able to realise their aspiration for better livelihoods by migrating to Dhaka. It analyses the respondents’ occupational patterns, trends, and changes at different points in time—before migration, immediately after migration, and the occupation at the time of the survey. It confirms structural changes in the economy with the waning of the number of agricultural workers and the increase in those employed in the services, construction, and transport sectors prior to migration. It also addresses the scope for better livelihood for an average urban resident, reviewing data on how long it took them to secure a job, whether it involved any cost, their level of job satisfaction, how long they continued with the same job, and whether they got an opportunity to switch to more-rewarding jobs.

Rapid Urbanization and Population Changes in Dhaka City

Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of Dhaka’s demographic transition. It compares Dhaka with other mega cities across the world to understand its current challenges and potential to achieve prosperity and inclusivity. It shows a clear trend of decline in fertility for slum women and a demographic transition in Dhaka city. It analyses population changes in the communities over time, why and how these changes have occurred, and what trends are emerging in this process that need policy attention. These demographic trends and patterns are compared with the ward-level data from the 2011 Population and Housing Census, wherever it was available, to help readers understand population changes in the broader context. The question of decline in fertility for women in slum households, is examined with different hypotheses drawing on relevant theories related to the demographic transition and the demographic dividend. Accordingly, it analyses the factors contributing to the changes and outcomes.

Migration and Rural−Urban Connectivity

Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive analysis of migration, poverty, space, and development nexus, which is necessary for a balanced, sustainable, inclusive development policy. It answers the contextual issues related to the question: is the poorer segment of the urban population that migrates with dreams for better lives and livelihoods benefitting from positive economic trends? Given the declining trends in poverty, which is estimated in this chapter using the 2010 HIES data and the improved level of physical and social infrastructure development at migrants’ birthplaces from the survey data, the importance of this analysis becomes clear. These broader contexts are then linked with household decision-making processes and migrants’ agency. Going beyond the push−pull debate, the book recasts migration theories by considering migrants’ intrinsic qualities—their self-confidence, hopes, aspirations, and resilience. It also takes into account differential gender roles, asymmetric social and gender relations, and migrants’ gendered backgrounds, while providing causal explanation for migration.

Dhaka’s Changing Landscape and Fortune

The introductory chapter highlights the doubts generated by contradictory signals of rapid urbanization in Dhaka, a mega city in the context of its high economic growth and yet, the concerns for sustainable and better quality of life which forms the rationale for this book. The book answers these doubts by addressing three compelling questions: is the poorer segment of urban population that migrates with dreams for better lives and livelihoods benefitting from positive economic trends? Are these benefits sustainable in the long run? Have these benefits brought qualitative changes creating scope for this group to have a stake in the city’s growing prosperity like their non-poor counterparts? It describes the longitudinal data generated from three rounds of repeat surveys of the same cross-sections of 600 slum and non-slum households randomly selected from four wards of Dhaka city and outlines the themes used in the book to address each of these questions in the subsequent eight chapters.