Soldier loyalty in Late Antiquity and Sacramentum militare in the context of selected sources

[Żołnierska lojalność a sacramentum militare w kontekście wybranych źródeł późnoantycznych] Celem tekstu jest przedstawienie, w jaki sposób przysięga wojskowa miała stymulować i umacniać lojalność żołnierzy wobec władcy. Autor na podstawie wybranych źródeł przeprowadził analizę samej przysięgi wojskowej, wiążąc ją z całym systemem umacniającym lojalność żołnierzy względem władcy oraz państwa. Wynikiem przeprowadzonych badań jest pełniejszy obraz funkcjonowania armii rzymskiej w dobie późnego antyku.

„wie man sich mit Gottes hülffe vor der vergifftung bewaren”. (Nie)użyteczne zalecenia w zakresie ochrony przed zarazą w drukach gdańskich fizyków miejskich z XVI w.

“Wie man sich mit Gottes hülffe vor der vergifftung bewaren”. (No)useful recommendations for protection against plague in the prints of Gdańsk (Danzig) city physicians in the XVIth century The plagues that appeared cyclically and with a relatively high frequency were for the urban communities of the Middle Ages and the early modern era an experience almost permanently inscribed in everyday life. As part of the struggle against epidemics, in addition to administrative measures taken by the authorities, there began to appear from the end of the XVth century anti-epidemic compendia edited by city physicians (thus medical persons with university education) and intended for a wider audience; they became especially popular in the German cultural area during the XVIth century. It was no different in Gdańsk (Danzig), wherea high level of medicine, and the practice of employing as city physicians well-educated medical persons (from German and Protestant universities) by the city authorities, resulted in the publication of numerous prints of this type. In total, in the years 1508−1588 in Gdańsk (Danzig) seven compendiums of this type were published. They contained general recommendations for protection against plague based on Galen’s medical system relating to the so-called six unnatural things (res non naturales); they were part of a trend of popular medical literature containing “rules of health” (regimen sanitatis). The recommendations contained in the prints by Gdańsk (Danzig) city physicians of the XVIth century concerned, therefore, the preservation of unpolluted air in the city, taking sanitary measures, proper diet and physical condition, as well as “surgical” treatments (taking baths in a bathhouse, using laxatives, phlebotomy), and pharmacological care (they were also supervisors of the city pharmacy at that time). These recommendations, however, were not practical advice (contrary to their titles) that could be fully applied in a time of plague; rather, they represented the state of academic medical knowledge of that time and were only a manifestation of its popularization resulting from the medical personnel’s duties. A separate place was found for considerations on a kind of “medical theology”, related to the commonly shared view that the cause of the epidemic was divine anger interpreted as a punishment for sins. This was of particular importance in the confessional order (with a Lutheran dominant) that was taking shape in Gdańsk (Danzig) during the XVIth century.

Предательство человечности. Красный террор большевиков в Крыму во время гражданской войны 1918–1920 гг. в повести Ивана Шмелева „Солнце мертвых”

[Betrayal of humanity. The red terror of the Bolsheviks in Crimea during the civil war in 1918–1920 in the light of Ivan Szmielev’s novel “The Sun of the Dead”] The article analyzes the novel by the Russian writer Ivan Szmielev “The Sun of the Dead” (1923). It was written on the basis of historical events. I analyze the composition of the work, which is based on two symbols – the sun and death. The sun symbolizes the rich and beautiful Crimea, and deathis a symbol of the new power – the power of the Bolsheviks who destroyed this wonderful land of Crimea. The author of the article emphasizes the autobiographical nature of the story “The Sun of the Dead”. Its narration is based on a firstperson story by Ivan Szmielev. This is a feature of lyrical prose. Describing the tragic events of total red terror, hunger and the struggle for survival, Ivan Szmielevs howsthat death affects everyone – people, animals, birds, trees, plants. The author of the article also emphasizes the philosophical and humanistic aspect of the work, which shows the history of humanity and human survival in an extreme situation, when very few are lucky enough to resist and not become victims of brutal murders of the Bolsheviks or starvation. In the process of the story, the image of the desert appears – a metaphor with which the writer emphasizes the scale of the destructive activity of the Bolsheviks.

Chwiejna lojalność żołnierzy Justyniana. Przyczyny rebelii w rzymskiej armii w Afryce w latach 536–546 n.e. Słowa

[The wavering loyalty of Emperor Justinian’s soldiers. The causes of the military revolts in Africa (536–545 AD)] Shortly after the liquidation of the Vandal rule in northern Africa and the restoration of the Roman administration, the newly established prefecture was shaken up by a series of military mutinies and rebellions. The revolts in the years 536–545 AD are represented in the contemporary witness accounts (esp. historian Procopius of Caesarea, poet Flavius Cresconius Corippus) as a case of a “civil war” among the Romans in the context of the concurrent conflict with the Berber (“Moor”) tribes. The history of the army mutinies has been depicted in accordance with the literary conventions and the propaganda‑oriented assumptions of the authors, with a striking background picture of the Roman army in a state of continual readiness to rise up in revolt against the emperor’s authority, which is something virtually unknown from any other contemporaneous war theatre, in consideration of a comparable scale. In his analysis of the unfolding events, the Author attempts to address not only the questions of the political intentions of the various rebellion leaders, but also (or even in particular) the motivations which would make the soldiers take part in such precarious undertakings. He points to a number of political, religious, and economic factors which caused the northern African army mutinies to escalate so violently, concluding with a paradoxical observation that in the newly established prefecture, the emperor would have counted on the loyalty of the locally recruited soldiers rather than on the elite troops to whose military skills he owed the re‑conquering of Africa.

Epidemie w Gdańsku w XVII i XVIII w. Addenda et corrigenda

Epidemics in Gdańsk in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries: Addenda et corrigenda The article presents selected sources concerning the dates of occurrence and the number of victims of the epidemics in Gdańsk in the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries. Among the sources are the data published by the municipal authorities of that time and early modern chronicles. They are juxtaposed with modern historical research. On this basis, the periods when Gdańsk was afflicted by plagues are determined with a high degree of probability and erroneous information that has been hitherto used the literature on the subject is indicated.

Impacts of the plague epidemic on the Kingdom of Bohemia in the second half of the XIVth century and at the beginning of the XVth century

Although the medieval plague epidemic had a global impact, its intensity varied from region to region in Europe. Plague rates as well as mortality rates were conditioned by climatic and geographical conditions, population density, migration, and trade activities, as well as nutritional opportunities and mental or cultural habits. If we look at Europe as a whole, then the Czech lands, the Bohemian Kingdom and the Moravian Margraviate were among the areas affected by plague epidemics in the XIVth and XVth centuries much less than medieval France, England, Italy, or the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire. The causes of the lower intensity of the plague epidemic in Bohemia and Moravia can be seen in all of the aspects mentioned above, which does not, however, mean that the impact of the plague epidemic in the Kingdom of Bohemia was not, in some regards, comparable to that in Western Europe. Research on the medieval plague epidemic in Bohemia and Moravia has struggled with a lack of relevant sources from the very beginning. The limited explanatory power of the sources has also influenced the limited interest of Czech historians in this topic. The only debate that was ever conducted about the impact of the plague epidemic in a Czech intellectual milieu concerned its possible influence on the outbreak of the Hussite revolution, or the degree of the intensity of the plague in 1380. This debate quite clearly led to the conclusion that in plague epidemics, or in their impact on pre-Hussite society, it is not possible to see a significant or even decisive cause of the outbreak of the Hussite revolution.

„Wbrew przysiędze” – dezercje w Wojsku Polskim w latach 1944–1947

[„Against the oath” – desertions in the Polish Army in 1944–1947] This article discusses the phenomenon of desertions in the Polish Army in the years 1944–1947. At that time it was a serious problem among soldiers, as the number of deserters can be estimated at around 30,000 people during this period. Of course, many factors influenced on the discipline and morale of the army, including political, economic, social or family conditions. The article describes the causes of desertion, its scale and trend of the phenomenon in the discussed period. The text also presents examples of so‑called collective desertions and actions taken by the communist authorities to limit this phenomenon in the army. With time, discipline began to improve and the number of desertions decreased. However, it was a process lasting several years.