Postposition-like constructions

There are a relatively small number of linguistic structures that seemingly consists of a noun expanded by a possessive suffix third-person singular and a locative, ablative, or instrumental case marker. They are used as adverbial phrases. The possessive element, however, has no antecedent, and that is why these constructions bear the semblance of postpositions more than that of real nouns. In particular, temporal constructions based on a noun denoting some moment, period, or duration behave like real postpositions in that they allow for indefinite and finite complements. Various postposition-like structures can also be used in predicate position and thus take a person marker. These constructions are typical for the description of mental states and mental content and of instances of intention, decision, and obligation.

Stacking embedded sentences

This chapter discusses how recursion works for several types of verbal predicates. Every verb that allows for a sentential complement based on a verb can form the core of such a complement itself. These comprise verbs of perception such as see, hear, feel and verbs of mental content such as know, remember, believe, suppose, and the like. The type of overall constituent ordering in Turkish is often characterized as subject-object-verb; the verb is preferably put at the end of the sentence and all other constituents precede it. This has important implications for the internal structure of the Turkish sentence, namely that the embedded verb in a sentential complement undergoes the process of nominalization, as is visible in suffixes signalling tense and person. Passive verbs are formed by suffixation and this explains why stacking of passive forms is quite common as well.

Sundry particles

Particles belong to the class of so-called function words; in contrast to content words such as green or house, which immediately evoke some image, the meaning of a particle becomes clear only as soon as it is put in the right place in a sentence. There are quite a few in Turkish. Conjunctions are the particles used for the coordination of nouns, and these are treated here, together with the question particle. This particle is not only applied to form choice questions, but it forms yes/no questions as well. The negational particle değil is used to contrast two or more nouns and combined with the question particle it is also the core of tag questions. In the third section so-called clitics are discussed, by means of which emphatic statements and rhetorical questions are formulated. Also, some clause linkers and devices for topicalization are discussed.

Simple sentences

Embroidering the distinction made in the chapter (18) on negation, this chapter discusses the full spectrum of simple sentences with a nominal predicate based on a noun, genitive-possessive construction, question-word, pronoun, demonstrative, and copular forms. Furthermore, negated and question forms, as well as combinations thereof, are discussed for these types of predicate. Besides a preliminary account of ordering principles for the noun phrase, special attention is given to copular forms of possessive nouns and inflected pronouns. Existential predicatesare: var ‘there is’ and its negational counterpart yok. Such structures are essential when it comes to expressing availability or possession. The final section is on verbal predicates, showing that there are two ordering patterns for the relative positions of the question particle and personal endings.

On negation

This chapter is intended as a mere announcement that there are three types of negation in Turkish. Each of these types has its own specific domain. First, to a verbal stem various (verbal) suffixes can be attached. Verbal negation goes by suffixation, and if a verb is to be negated, the negating suffix is added directly to the verb stem. Secondly, nominal sentences all make use of the negation particle değil ‘not’. The third type of negation occurs in existential expressions: the notion ‘there is’ is expressed by var and its negational counterpart is yok ‘there is not’. Furthermore, to a limited extent intrinsic negation is expressed in adverbial phrases by olmadan ‘without’ or by a noun expanded by the privative suffix –sIz ‘without’. Also the particle ne … ne ‘neither … nor’ has a negative meaning.

Imperative forms

The smallest unit of a verb is its stem and it is this stem that is most frequently used as the imperative. There are other means as well, all based on a stem plus a suffix: a polite request is issued in two ways, depending on whether one or more persons are being addressed. A third form is the compelling request, being applied as encouragement or to convey a certain degree of impatience. A paraphrased request is formed by using, for instance, an affirmative of negated present-tense form or by a verb form expressing possibility. Instructions can also be given in a declarative form expressing present or future. A certain ‘imperative’ effect can of course also be achieved by using modal forms corresponding to ‘can’ and ‘may’.

Adverbs and their like

A popular method of classifying adverbs is by looking at what they modify: adjective or verb. Another criterion is whether or not the adverbial expression reflects an attitude of the speaker towards the content of his utterance. Both groups, objective and subjective adverbs, contain large numbers of lexical adverbs, all highly conventionalized. Other groups sharing these properties are adverbs of place and indeterminate adverbials. Adverbial phrases can be formed in several ways: by using an adjective, by drawing from the lexical stock of ready-to-use adverbs, by various forms of suffixation, and by reduplication. Adverbials based on the notions ‘with’ and ‘without’ deserve special attention, particularly with respect to possessive expressions. The final section discusses constructions based on kinship terms which do not follow the canonical suffix ordering.

The alphabet *

This chapter presents the Latin-based alphabet of Turkish, which differs from that of English in the extra letters ç, ğ, ı, ö, ş, and ü, whereas it lacks q, w, and x. A detailed account is given of vowels, of consonants not present in the English alphabet, and of consonants shared by both languages. The notions front and back for vowels are introduced, as well as the notions voiced versus voiceless for consonants. Next, attention is given to aspiration of voiceless plosives. The most conspicuous letters for which the phonological environment determines their sound value are r and ğ; the former being pronounced with a kind of rustling at the end of a word, and the latter functioning either as a lengthening marker or as a symbol representing the y-sound. This chapter ends with the Turkish telephone alphabet.

Formation of verbs

Whereas inflection (and conjugation) are the essentials in the first four parts of this book, the next two chapters are devoted to derivational issues, or rather, to the question of how words are made using existing material. Not surprisingly, the grammar of Turkish has plenty of solutions. In the formation of verbs, auxiliary verbs and nouns are primarily used to form words for new concepts, but devices such as suffixes for causative, passive, and reflexive produce a meaning derived from an existing one. Also many formations which suggest that they were once made on the basis of rules now no longer productive deserve, of course, the necessary attention. A special section deals with forms rarely discussed in grammars: the indirect imperative of causative and passive verbs. The upbeat to an account of fixed verb combinations, the structure and semantics of couplings with –(y)Ip are discussed.

Ordering patterns

After an extensive account of the basics of Turkish grammar, this chapter offers nothing but ordering principles: the first two sections are about the morphotactics of nouns and verbs, and noun phrase structure. All this is represented in tabular form. The ordering principles for noun phrases (including adverbial and postpositional phrases) in a clause is dealt with next, and thus, constituent order in nominal, existential, and verbal sentences is discussed in the third section. Dependent clauses are the topic of the fourth section, which also gives an overview of verbal linking suffixes to form such clauses. The final section shows that constituent ordering in verbal sentences can better be understood in terms of the pragmatic notions Topic and Focus than in terms of traditional distribution of Subject and Objects (SOV).